4 Results by ecosystem
4.4. Open ocean ecosystem
The open ocean ecosystem is located beyond the shelf break and has depths well beyond 200 m, very
Figure 4.54 Population status and short-term trends of bird species associated with open ocean ecosystem
Notes: The total number of assessments is 8 for birds.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments.
Population status Short-term trends
Secure Unknown
Near threatened,
declining or depleted Threatened
Increasing Uncertain/unknown
Stable/fluctuating Decreasing 75%
25%
50%
50%
stable temperatures and salinity regimes; the deep seabed is particularly considered within the open ocean ecosystem. The marine ecosystem typology is generally applicable across European waters (and globally) and also relates to the use of the marine environment by different sectors, which helps support the assessment of ecosystem services delivered by marine ecosystems (EC, 2013b). There are only two Annex I habitat types included in this MAES ecosystem.
Figure 4.54 shows the population status of open ocean bird species. While 75% of birds are assessed as secure, 25% are assessed as threatened. As for short-term trends in EU population status, only two categories were reported. Exactly half were reported as decreasing, while the other half were reported as increasing.
As shown in Figure 4.55, the vast majority of assessments of open ocean ecosystem species of the Habitats Directive are assessed as unknown (83%). Moreover, all of the unfavourable assessments for trends in conservation status are classified as unknown (12%). Therefore, the small number of known assessments cannot be considered representative of this ecosystem (5% favourable and 12% unfavourable).
With regard to conservation status assessments for open ocean habitats, a significant share (50%) is assessed as unfavourable-inadequate, while 17% was
assessed as favourable and 33% as unknown (see Figure 4.55). As for trends in conservation status, both unfavourable-stable (33%) and unfavourable-declining (17%) make up a significant share of assessments, while 33% are unknown. There are only seven assessments for open ocean habitats.
These figures, in particular for non-bird species (particularly cetaceans and marine turtles) again highlight the large share of unknown assessments for marine conservation status assessments and the small
Figure 4.55 Conservation status and trends of species (a) and habitats (b) (Habitats Directive) associated with open ocean ecosystem
Conservation status
(a) Species (66 assessments) Status and trends
(a) Species (66 assessments)
Conservation status
(b) Habitats (6 assessments) Status and trends
(b) Habitats (6 assessments)
Favourable Unknown
Unfavourable-inadequate Unfavourable-bad
Favourable Unknown
Unfavourable-improving Unfavourable-unknown-trend Unfavourable-stable Unfavourable-declining 5%
83%
9%
3%
17%
33%
50%
5%
83%
12%
17%
33% 33%
17%
Notes: The total number of assessments is 66 and 6 for species and habitats, respectively.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
number of habitat assessments. As such, it is difficult to draw a definitive picture of the conservation status and trends for open ocean ecosystems, based on Article 12 and Article 17 data.
Over half of the reported pressures/threats to open ocean bird populations are related to 'pollution', followed by the 'use of living resources (other than agriculture and forestry)' (29% of all reported pressures/threats at Level 1). While only six Level 2 pressures/threats were reported, and are based
on a limited number of reports, it is nevertheless clear that the significant factor affecting open ocean bird populations is pollution (listed in almost half of all reports). The main contributing factors are oil spills in the sea, macro-pollution (i.e. plastic bags and styrofoam) and non-synthetic compound contamination (see Figure 4.56). The second significant Level 2 pressure/threat is fishing and the harvesting of aquatic resources (listed in almost a third of all reports). The remaining Level 2 pressures/threats are
Figure 4.56 Top 6 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures /threats for birds associated with open ocean ecosystem
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
XO Threats and pressures from outside the Member State M02 Biotic changes (climate change) J03 Other changes to ecosystems H01 Pollution to surface waters F02 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources H03 Pollution to marine waters
Notes: Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 17. Greece did not provide an Article 12 report.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments.
reported at similar frequencies, and are insignificant in comparison.
Three main pressure/threat categories are reported for non-bird ocean species, including 'pollution' and 'disturbances due to human activities' (both 26% of all reported pressures/threats at Level 1) and the 'use of living resources (other than agriculture and forestry)' (18%). These categories are also reflected in the Level 2 ranking (see Figure 4.57) and represent 6 of the top
Figure 4.57 Top 10 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures and threats for species (Habitats Directive) associated with open ocean ecosystem
Pressures Threats
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
M02 Biotic changes (climate change) XO Threats and pressures from outside the Member State F06 Other hunting, fishing and collection activities G05 Other human intrusions and disturbances J03 Other changes to ecosystems H06 Excess energy (noise, light, heating, electromagnetic) D03 Shipping lanes and ports G04 Military use and civil unrest H03 Pollution to marine waters F02 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources
Notes: These are species from the Habitats Directive. Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 55 and 72, respectively. Greece did not provide an Article 17 report.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
10 pressures/threats. More specifically, the most frequently reported Level 2 pressures/threats (and the main contributing factors therein) are the fishing and harvesting of aquatic resources (netting), pollution of marine waters (macro-pollution) and military use and civil unrest (military manoeuvres), followed closely by shipping lanes and ports.
Figure 4.58 Top 10 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures and threats for habitats associated with open ocean ecosystem
Notes: Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 41 and 36, respectively. Greece did not provide an Article 17 report.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
Pressures Threats
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
K01 Abiotic natural processes E03 Discharges (household/industrial) I01 Invasive alien species E01 Urbanisation and human habitation G05 Other human intrusions and disturbances J03 Other changes to ecosystems J02 Changes in water bodies conditions H03 Pollution to marine waters G01 Outdoor sports, leisure and recreational activities F02 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources
Open ocean habitats are affected by three main pressure/threat categories, namely 'disturbances due to human activities' and the 'use of living resources (other than agriculture and forestry)' (each 22% of all reported pressures/threats at Level 1), and 'pollution' (15%). The corresponding top‑ranked Level 2 pressures/
threats within these overarching categories are,
Table 4.13 Top five Level 2 conservation measures ranked high for species and habitats associated with open ocean ecosystem
Top five Birds Non-bird species Habitats
Measure % Measure % Measure %
1. 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 36.4 5.0 Other marine-related
measures 14.3 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 23.4
2. 5.0 Other marine-related
measures 18.2 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 14.3 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 23.4 3. 6.0 Other spatial measures 18.2 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 14.3 4.1 Restoring/improving
water quality 12.8
4. 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 18.2 7.0 Other species
management measures 14.3 7.3 Regulation/Management of fishery in marine and brackish systems
10.6
5. 9.2 Regulating/Managing exploitation of natural resources on sea
6.1 7.3 Regulation/Management of fishery in marine and brackish systems
14.3 8.3 Managing marine traffic 8.5
5 n/a 7.4 Specific single species
or species group management measures
14.3 9.2 Regulating/Managing exploitation of natural resources on sea
8.5
5 n/a 8.3 Managing marine traffic 14.3 n/a
Notes: Non-bird species are species from the Habitats Directive. The total number of conservation measures is 33, 7 and 47 for birds, non-bird species and habitats, respectively. Greece did not provide any Articles 12 and 17 reports.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments; EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
respectively, fishing and harvesting aquatic resources;
outdoor sports, leisure and recreational activities (see Figure 4.58); and pollution to marine waters. It is notable that these three Level 2 factors were more frequently reported as threats than as pressures, indicating an expected increase in their severity within the next two reporting periods.
Table 4.13 lists the five most frequently reported conservation measures for open ocean birds, non-bird species and habitats at Level 2 of the conservation
measures categorisation. The most common type of conservation measure for birds, non-bird species and habitats is 'establish protected areas/sites' (36%, 14% and 23%, respectively). The additional top 5 ranked measures for non-bird species are distributed evenly between 'managing marine traffic', 'regulation/
management of fishery in marine and brackish
systems', 'other species management measures', 'other marine-related measures', 'legal protection of habitats and species' and 'specific single species or species group management measures' (together, at 14.3%).