4 Results by ecosystem
4.3 Freshwater ecosystems
The rivers and lakes ecosystem is the only freshwater ecosystem under the MAES typology.
A large share of EU population status assessments for rivers and lakes related birds are secure (59%), with the remaining assessments evenly distributed across unknown, threatened, near threatened, declining or depleted. For short-term trends, the share of assessments reported as decreasing is high (31%), but is complemented by similarly large shares of increasing (27%) and stable/fluctuating assessments (29%).
A large share of the assessments of conservation status for rivers and lakes habitats and species from the Habitats Directive is unfavourable, with around half assessed as unfavourable-inadequate.
Moreover, around a third of assessments of trends in conservation status are assessed as declining, while only 5% of assessments for both non-bird species and habitats are reported as improving. These figures indicate a largely unfavourable state of rivers and lakes ecosystems, with a significant declining trend.
A comparison between terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems shows that while the rivers and lakes ecosystems has the highest proportion of secure EU population status assessments for terrestrial and freshwater birds, and sparsely vegetated land ecosystems has the lowest, these rankings were reversed for conservation status assessments for habitats and species of the Habitats Directive. As such, rivers and lakes ecosystems has the lowest share of favourable habitat and species conservation status assessments among terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, while sparsely vegetated land ecosystems had the highest share.
Rivers and lakes ecosystems is most impacted by the overarching pressure/threat category 'modification of natural conditions', and more specifically by changes in waterbody conditions. Birds and non-bird species are second most frequently affected by 'other changes to ecosystems', while habitats face the pressure/threat of 'pollution to surface waters'.
The most frequently reported conservation measure for freshwater birds and habitats is to 'establish protected areas/sites' (listed in more than a fifth of all reports). 'Restoring/improving the hydrological regime' is the most commonly listed measure for non-bird species (cited in almost a fifth of all reports).
4.3.1 Rivers and lakes ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem consists of inland freshwater systems, including rivers and lakes (EC, 2013b) and is the smallest ecosystem group in the MAES typology, with only one ecosystem. Rivers and lakes covers approximately 1% of the EU land area, although as this was derived from Corine Land Cover, which excludes small waterbodies, this is an underestimate (ETC/BD, 2011). Freshwater ecosystems are not only important for providing drinking water, but also for other
ecosystems services such as recreation, food, industrial use, and mediation of wastes, and are fundamentally interconnected with many other ecosystems (European Commission, 2014). The Habitats Directive includes 19 Annex I freshwater habitat types that are linked to the MAES ecosystem 'rivers and lakes'.
Figure 4.34 shows the related conservation status of rivers and lakes. More than half the assessments of EU population status for rivers and lakes bird species are secure (59%), whereas threatened (14%), near threatened, declining or depleted (15%) and unknown (12%) assessments each make up smaller, but significant shares. For short-term trends in EU population status, decreasing (31%), increasing (27%) and stable/fluctuating assessments (29%) each make up sizeable shares, whereas the share of uncertain/
unknown assessments is smaller, but significant. As has been demonstrated in Chapter 2, it should be noted that some waterbird species (ducks, waders and grebes) tend to have a particularly high proportion of threatened species compared to other groups.
As shown in Figure 4.35, a significant share of the assessments of conservation status for rivers and lakes ecosystem–related species (Habitats Directive) are unfavourable, with 45% assessed as inadequate and 29% assessed as bad. Furthermore, only a
moderately sized share of the assessments is assessed as favourable (17%). As for the trends in conservation status, more than a third of assessments are assessed as declining (35%); combined, only about a quarter are assessed as stable (21%) or improving (5%). These figures indicate a largely unfavourable state of river and lake ecosystems with a significant declining trend.
The conservation status assessments for rivers and lakes habitats are comparable to rivers and lakes species, with 16% assessed as favourable and 56% assessed as unfavourable-inadequate.
Unfavourable-bad assessments make up a further 17% of assessments. As for trends in conservation status, both stable (34%) and declining (31%)
Figure 4.34 Population status and short-term trends of bird species associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Notes: The total number of assessments is 128 for birds.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments.
Population status Short-term trends
Secure Unknown
Near threatened,
declining or depleted Threatened
Increasing Uncertain/unknown
Stable/fluctuating Decreasing 59%
12%
15%
14%
27%
13%
29%
31%
assessments make up nearly a third of assessments, while only 5% of assessments are assessed as
improving (see Figure 4.35). As such, while the share of unfavourable-bad and declining assessments is slightly less pronounced than for non-bird species, the overall picture is similarly unfavourable.
Rivers and lakes ecosystem–related birds are most frequently reported to be under pressure/threat by
(43) i.e. human intrusions and disturbances; climate change; natural biotic and abiotic processes; biological resources use other than agriculture and forestry; agriculture; pollution; invasive, other problematic species and genes; and mining, extraction of materials and energy production.
the 'modification of natural conditions' (33% of the total reported pressures/threats at Level 1) and, more specifically, by changes in hydraulic conditions (listed in more than a fifth of all reports). The remaining Level 2 pressures/threats are similar in their reported frequencies, and cover a wide range of Level 1
categories (43), indicating the need to consider an array of pressures/threats when addressing rivers and lakes bird species (see Figure 4.36).
Figure 4.35 Conservation status and trends of species (a) and habitats (b) (Habitats Directive) associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Conservation status
(a) Species (5615assessments) Status and trends
(a) Species (615 assessments)
Conservation status
(b) Habitats (94 assessments) Status and trends
(b) Habitats (94 assessments)
Favourable Unknown
Unfavourable-inadequate Unfavourable-bad
Favourable Unknown
Unfavourable-improving Unfavourable-unknown-trend Unfavourable-stable Unfavourable-declining
17%
9%
5%
13%
21%
35%
16%
11%
5%
3%
34%
31%
17%
9%
45%
29%
16%
11%
56%
17%
Notes: The total number of assessments is 615 and 94 for species and habitats, respectively.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
Rivers and lakes ecosystem non-bird species are unambiguously reported to be most threatened/
under pressure by the 'modification of natural conditions' (39% of all reported pressures/threats at Level 1). As is to be expected, the top pressures/
threats correspond with this category, i.e. changes
Figure 4.36 Top 10 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures/threats for birds associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Notes: Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 1 088. Greece did not provide an Article 12 report.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments.
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
F01 Marine and freshwater aquaculture I01 Invasive alien species H01 Pollution to surface waters A02 Modification of cultivation practices F03 Hunting and collection of terrestrial wild animals K03 Interspecific faunal relations G01 Outdoor sports, leisure and recreational activities M01 Abiotic changes (climate change) J03 Other changes to ecosystems J02 Changes in water bodies conditions
Figure 4.37 Top 10 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures and threats for species (Habitats Directive) associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Pressures Threats
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
K02 Vegetation succession/Biocenotic evolution D01 Roads, railroads and paths A07 Use of 'pesticides' in agriculture F02 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources K03 Interspecific faunal relations A02 Modification of cultivation practices I01 Invasive alien species H01 Pollution to surface waters J03 Other changes to ecosystems J02 Changes in water bodies conditions
Notes: These are species from the Habitats Directive. Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 2 962 and 3 052, respectively. Greece did not provide an Article 17 report.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
in waterbody conditions and other changes to ecosystems (particularly the anthropogenic reduction of habitat connectivity). Also, the pressures/threats pollution to surface waters and invasive non-native species at Level 2 are notable (see Figure 4.37).
Rivers and lakes habitats are most severely affected by three main overarching pressure/threat categories, namely the 'modification of natural conditions', 'pollution' and 'agriculture' (28%, 22% and 13% of the total reported pressures/threats, respectively). At Level 2, changes in waterbody conditions and pollution to surface waters are listed most frequently (see Figure 4.38).
Figure 4.38 Top 10 (% of frequency) reported high-ranked pressures and threats for habitats associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Notes: Pressures and threats are reported at Level 2. The total number of pressures and threats is 610 and 614, respectively. Greece did not provide an Article 17 report.
Source: EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
Pressures Threats
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
G01 Outdoor sports, leisure and recreational activities K01 Abiotic natural processes A02 Modification of cultivation practices H02 Pollution to groundwater I01 Invasive alien species K02 Vegetation succession/Biocenotic evolution A08 Fertilisation in agriculture C01 Mining and quarrying H01 Pollution to surface waters J02 Changes in water bodies conditions
Table 4.9 Top five Level 2 conservation measures ranked high for species and habitats associated with rivers and lakes ecosystem
Top five Birds Non-bird species Habitats
Measure % Measure % Measure %
1. 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 27.0 4.2 Restoring/improving the
hydrological regime 17.7 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 20.5
2. 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 20.7 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 17.4 4.1 Restoring/improving
water quality 16.2
3. 4.2 Restoring/improving the
hydrological regime 14.2 4.1 Restoring/improving
water quality 14.8 4.2 Restoring/improving the hydrological regime 13.7 4. 7.1 Regulation/Management
of hunting and taking 6.8 6.1 Establish protected
areas/sites 10.4 6.3 Legal protection of
habitats and species 13.6 5. 4.0 Other wetland-related
measures 5.7 4.3 Managing water
abstraction 6.1 4.3 Managing water
abstraction 6.6
Notes: Non‑bird species are species from the Habitats Directive. The total number of conservation measures is 1 777, 2 442 and 730 for birds, non-bird species and habitats, respectively. Greece did not provide any Articles 12 and 17 reports.
Source: EEA, 2015a, Article 12 reports and assessments; EEA, 2015b, Article 17 reports and assessments.
Table 4.9 lists the five most frequently reported conservation measures for rivers and lakes' birds, non‑bird species and habitats at Level 2 of the conservation measures categorisation. Only three measures are shared across all groups, albeit in different orders of importance. 'Establish protected areas/sites' is the most common measure for birds and habitats (27% and 21%, respectively), but it is only
ranked fourth for non-bird species (10%). 'Restoring/
improving the hydrological regime' is most commonly listed for non-bird species (18%), but it is only listed third for birds and habitats (14% for both). 'Legal protection of habitats and species' is also commonly listed, and is ranked second for birds and non-birds, and fourth for habitats.