Northern forests have traditionally played a considerable role in the economies, livelihood and way of life in the north. The small number of tree species, large forest areas, and slowly maturing, high-quality wood are often regarded as advantages of the northern areas, providing a good environment for the economic exploitation of forests. The Barents Region plays an important role in the production of chemical forest industry products in Russia (Välkky et al. ).
Forest companies are clearly, in many ways, an important force in the Russian part of the Barents Region, making considerable contributions to the overall living conditions of the area (e.g., Rossiiskaia Gazeta a, b). Given the
importance of the forest industry in the economy of Northwest Russia, there is significant economic power in the hands of the forest companies. However, the issue of social sustainability is also extremely significant. In the Russian part of the Barents Region, the CSR practices of the forest companies are important not only for the forest companies themselves, but also for the local communities and the people who inhabit them. Russia’s socialistic past and the weak social and economic conditions in many localities have strengthened the powerful role of the forest industry in the Russian part of the Barents Region. However, the dependence of local communities on local firms makes the localities rather vulnerable, and sudden changes in the global forest industry can have a serious impact on them. Furthermore, there is no doubt that social responsibilities lead to extra costs and impair the competitiveness of the forest companies. In a market economy, extensive social tasks and responsibility for the well-being of local people are clearly burdensome for companies.
In accordance with the concept of legal pluralism, the contemporary CSR in the forest sector in Northwest Russia is certainly a field in which several regulatory systems co-exist. Naturally state legislation establishes a basic framework that defines what companies can do and what they cannot do. In addition, the CSR practices of the forest companies are governed by private regulation. The FSC forest certification standards that have emerged in the forest sector in the Russian part of the Barents Region are a good example of private regulation. Legal pluralism stresses the rule-creating role of private actors such as companies. The forest companies in the Russian part of the Barents Region can be regarded as powerful actors in part because of their rule-creating activities. In fact, it seems that the rule-creating capacity of the forest companies has increased and improved. The forest sector in Northwest Russia is dominated by large companies. These companies have adopted alternative regulatory instruments such as FSC standards to govern their behavior, while developing their CSR practices. Furthermore, NGOs participate vigorously in discussions concerning responsible behaviour in the forest industry. Therefore, the CSR of the forest companies is not solely in the hands of the forest companies themselves.
However, the complexity and plurality of the regulatory environment also creates challenges for the companies (Hutter ). The requirements of different regulatory systems, which sometimes conflict with each other, allow for multiple interpretations (Michaels 5). Companies have to learn
how to cooperate with various stakeholders and find ways to navigate in multiple regulatory regimes. In Russia, for instance, differences between forest certification criteria and forest legislation have created tensions between the forest companies and the authorities. Forest companies have been forced to make special arrangements to fulfil certification criteria and to find a balance between different requirements (Pappila ).
This chapter has evaluated CSR in the forest sector in the Russian part of the Barents Region. For lawyers and legal studies, CSR is a rather difficult topic to deal with, since CSR is routinely considered to be something that goes beyond the requirements of law. The “voluntary versus mandatory CSR” debate emphasizes the problematic relationship between law and CSR. However, it has been suggested that the whole debate whether CSR should be voluntary or mandatory is misguided (Zerk ). It overlooks the fact that in many jurisdictions, CSR-related issues – like workplace health and safety, consumer and environmental protection, just to mention a few – are already regulated by law. On the other hand, the voluntary versus mandatory CSR debate reflects a simplistic view of what law is and how it guides human behaviour. Regulatory regimes are not bullet-proof; there are grey areas and loopholes. In these situations the socially responsible response may well be to comply with the spirit of the law rather than to try to avoid it (Zerk ). Thus, a forest company cannot claim to be responsible while at the same time logging valuable forest areas, even if, due to some loopholes in legislation, it may have the right to do so. CSR and law are not separate but, in reality, closely intertwined.
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c h a p t e r 5 Stefan Walter
CLiMate Change in the north – a CoMpLexity proBLeM
introduction
Climate change is widely considered to be a complex problem. This is reflected in the literature dealing with climate change and its potential impact. For example, O’Brien and Leichenko () consider that climate change, coupled with economic globalisation, produces a complex regime and creates a double exposure: one stemming from climate change, the other from globalisation.
Although there is great uncertainty, the authors agree that this regime will create both winners and losers due to the unequal development of climate change and the process of globalisation.
Related to the exposure to climate change, and coupled with other social processes, is the assessment of the capacity to mitigate and adapt. On the basis of common scenarios, dynamic changes over time, and risk assessments, van Vuuren et al. () conclude that no optimal mitigation, adaptation or combination of the two can be pursued in reality. This is due to large uncertainties in data, methods and models. While van Vuuren et al. acknowledge the complex nature of climate change and its social linkages, they nevertheless point out the usefulness of ‘mathematical’ scenarios to get an idea of future evolution.
It may be argued that they confuse complicatedness with complexity, a not uncommon mistake. Van Vuuren et al. do realise, however, that whenever human action is concerned, the prescribed scenarios seem to lose their significance.
This estimation is confirmed by Anisimov et al. (), who authored the chapter on polar regions in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. While they agree that the impact of climate change in the polar regions will exceed the forecasted impact on other regions, they also argue that the regions show an enormous complexity in their interactions. Furthermore, the responses of biological and human systems are equally highly complex. Thus, the future impact of climate change is very difficult to predict.
In climate governance this complexity is acknowledged. As an object of analysis in terms of policy recommendations, however, climate governance is difficult to assess, given the complexity of adaptation measures. This is exacerbated by the uncertainties surrounding climate change and its impact (Smit et al. ). Nevertheless, governance efforts are continuing.
This raises the question of why the situation is as it is. Apparently, agencies that govern have a particular understanding of complexity, one which seemingly ignores some of the scientific views that have been presented. It is also true that scientists can likewise be the victims of misunderstandings, as van Vuuren et al. show.
This chapter aims to shed light on the process that guides governance on climate change. In particular, the author will show examples of policies or political initiatives on combating climate change in the North, notably – but not exclusively – concerning the Barents Region. This will provide the opportunity of comprehending the rationality of politics as well as answering broader questions of scientific approaches which may lead to misunderstandings.
The complexity of climate change governance is shown by introducing various positions, including general governmental, legal, political, economic and scientific positions and contrasting their expectations.
The chapter is based on a logical scientific approach that is somewhat in contrast to an empirical approach and that differs fundamentally from a critical approach, which forms the basis for normative studies. The chapter, thus, aims to correct the picture that emerges when political rationality enters into research thinking as a norm.