PICTURE 3. The 2nd and 3rd Grade Classroom in the Bilingual Primary School
LIST OF PICTURES
PICTURE 1. Campus ... 5
PICTURE 2. Students on Recess ... 6
PICTURE 3. The 2nd and 3rd Grade Classroom in the Bilingual School ... 6
LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Honduran Educational System ... 14
TABLE 2. Six Major Types of Parental Involvement in Education ... 24
TABLE 3. Example of the Analysis Process of One of the Teacher’s Interview ... 38
TABLE 4. Summary of Findings and Implications. ... 77
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT TIIVISTELMÄ PREFACE
LIST OF PICTURES LIST OF TABLES
1 INTRODUCTION ... 11
2 THE HONDURAN CONTEXT ... 13
2.1 Honduran Educational System and Contemporary Situation ... 13
2.2 Description of Early English Language Education in the National Curriculum ... 15
2.3 The Christian Bilingual Primary School ... 16
3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION ... 18
3.1 English Language Education Globally ... 18
3.2 Age Factor in Language Learning ... 18
3.3 Bilingual Education ... 20
4 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND FAMILY-SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP ... 23
4.1 Parental Involvement in Children’s Academic Education ... 23
4.2 Parental Involvement in English Language Education ... 25
4.3 Parental Role Construction Affecting Involvement ... 26
4.4 Building Family-School Partnership ... 28
5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ... 31
6 METHODOLOGY ... 32
6.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods ... 32
6.2 Data Collection Methods ... 33
6.2.1 Questionnaires as Quantitative Data Collection Method ... 34
6.2.2 Semistructured Interview as Qualitative Data Collection Method ... 35
6.3 Data Processing and Analysis ... 37
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 40
7.1 Parents’ Views Related to Family–School Partnership ... 40
7.1.1 Parents’ Experiences with Family–School Partnership ... 41
7.1.2 Parental Perspective on Developing Family-School Partnership... 43
7.2 Parents Describe Their Involvement in The Child’s Education ... 47
7.2.1 Parents’ Attitudes Towards English Education in the School ... 47
7.2.2 Parents’ Awareness of Their Children’s English Education ... 48
7.2.3 Involvement Practices at Home and at School ... 50
7.2.4 Strategies Which the Parents Use to Help the Child When Not Knowing English ... 51
7.3 Teachers’ Views related to Family–School Partnership in The Bilingual School ... 53
7.3.1 Teachers’ Experiences Related to Family–School Partnership ... 53
7.3.2 Teachers’ Perspective on Developing Family–School Partnership ... 58
7.4 Teachers Describe Parental Involvement ... 61
7.4.1 Importance of Parental Involvement in Children’s Learning ... 61
7.4.2 Parents Being Involved ... 63
7.4.3 Barriers to Parental Involvement ... 65
7.4.4 Teachers Describe Supporting Parental Involvement in English Education .... 68
8 CONCLUSIONS ... 73
8.1 Summary of Results and Implications ... 74
8.2 Strengths and Limitations of Study ... 78
8.3 Future Research ... 79
9 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH ... 80
9.1 Research Integrity ... 80
9.2 Validity as Credibility and Transferability ... 81
9.3 Reliability as Dependability ... 84
9.4 Objectivity as Confirmability ... 84
REFERENCES ... 85
APPENDICES ... 95
APPENDIX 1. Parents’ Interview Questions ... 95
APPENDIX 2. Teachers’ Interview Questions ... 98
APPENDIX 3. Reminder to Return the Questionnaires ... 100
APPENDIX 4. Note Attached to the Questionnaires ... 100
APPENDIX 5. Questionnaire in Spanish ... 101
1 INTRODUCTION
“It just helps me to feel like I'm doing what I'm supposed to do.” (T 6)
One of the most important aspects of education is having an efficient partnership with the parents as their influence on the children’s learning is unchallenged and crucial. The aim of this partnership is to build a bridge, or a network, between the school and families, to share information and support the child’s development and learning; it works for the good of the school and the families, and in particular, for the children who are in the center of it.. For teachers, to get to know the families in order to be there for them and have them actively involved is invaluable as well as rewarding. At best, it supports the teacher’s role in educating, teaching, and caring for the students. At the same time, an effective partnership enables families to be clear on what the children are learning and what are their needs; it can boost their confidence in parenting and decision-making in supporting the child. It can help both teachers and parents to feel like they are doing what they are supposed to do, as a team.
Parental involvement in children’s language learning process is equally effective and its implications extend to language education. Research suggests that parental involvement can have a significant positive influence on students’ L2 achievement, and parents can be influential in constructing their children’s understanding of the importance as well as their attitudes towards learning languages. (Xuesong 2006; Ebuta & Ekpo-Eloma 2014; Hosseinpour, Sherkatolabbas & Yarahmadi 2015; Morteza, Marzieh & Zangoei 2014; Bartram 2006.)
Nevertheless, many questions emerge when addressing family–school partnership and parental involvement. Understanding their importance and to practice them can often be two different things. How can a teacher actually support the families, in practice? Why are some parents more involved than others, or hard to reach? Just as each family has its personal needs that should be recognized, there can also be personal barriers that hinder involvement or the effectiveness of building a relationship—it can be a matter of self-perception, expectations, attitudes, resources, or simply circumstances. Perhaps it is even the organizational structures of the school that push families away. (Hoover‐Dempsey, Walker, Sandler, Whetsel, Green, Wilkins & Closson 2005, 114; Mapp & Hong 2010, 346.)
Each community, and school, of course has its own strengths and challenges, and so does the Christian bilingual primary school in Honduras. It poses some interesting perspectives to be studied, though—especially so as the school provides a clear advantage to its students by teaching English, which can ultimately affect what opportunities one receives in life. But how do parents experience their role in their children’s English education, when not knowing English themselves? How can a teacher create a trusting and supportive partnership with the parents; and what difference does it make in the Honduran families? And what more could the parents wish from the teachers, and teachers wish from the parents?
The aim of this thesis is to look into how the parents and teachers’ respective views and experiences related to parent–teacher partnership and parental involvement in the English education and what kind of dialogue is realized between these two sides. Further, both parents and teachers’ hopes and ideas in regard to developing the partnership are investigated. This research can help the school to identify its strengths and foster them—as well as acknowledge the areas that could be developed in order to bring the school and the families closer together, and support the families’ efforts to be involved in their children’s English education.
2 THE HONDURAN CONTEXT
2.1 Honduran Educational System and Contemporary Situation
Honduras, located in the middle of Central America between Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador, populates 9,3 million people. Honduras is one of the poorest countries in Western Hemisphere, facing problems with crime and extreme violence. Approximately 61% of the people lived in poverty in 2016. (The World Bank; World Population Review; Murphy-Graham 2012, 51.)
Honduran educational system consists of pre-primary education, basic (divided into primary and lower secondary) education and upper secondary education (see table 1). Pre-primary education (educación prebásica) lasts six years and is divided into two cycles (ciclos); the 1st cycle aimed for 0–3-year-old children and the 2nd for 3–6-year-old children. Primary and lower secondary education together cover the nine-year basic education (educación básica). Primary education is compulsory yet free from ages 7 to 12 and is divided into two cycles for ages 6–9 and 9–12. After primary school, students have the option to attend the third cycle, i.e. lower secondary school. At age 15, students can decide whether they want to proceed to upper secondary education (educación media), choosing between academic (cientifico humanista) or vocational (técnico profesional) education which take from two to three years to complete. At age 18, it is possible to continue at university level. School curricula, syllabi and textbooks are regulated by the government in all schools. (Meyer, 2017; Gavin 2017, 3; Curriculo Nacional Básico 2003, 23; Currculo Nacional Básico 2004, 5.)
TABLE 1. Honduran Educational System (Curriculo Nacional Básico 2004, 5).
Nivel Descprición
Educación Prebásica I Ciclo II Ciclo
0 a 3 años de edad
Bachillerato Científico Humanista Bachillerato Técnico Profesional 15 a 17 años de edad
Duración: 2 años
15 a 18 años de edad Duración: 3 años
Primary school enrollment level is 90%, the remaining percentage having no access to education, but approximately half of the students drop out before graduating. One third graduate without repeating grades, and one third of those who graduate, attend secondary school.
Enrollment rates in pre-primary and secondary schools remain low. (Causey 2016; Gavin 2017, 4; Meyer 2017; Schaefer 2013.) According to the Secretary of Education (Secretaría de Educación 2010, 17), in 2008, the poorest received 4.9 years of education on average, and the richest over double the amount, 10.2 years. Even though the strategy for reducing poverty is to provide better access to education, especially to secondary schools, in the rural areas few can continue studies beyond the 6th grade. Secondary schools are scarce outside cities and attending school regularly can be challenging. Many children are required to help their families economically, and since free education is provided only until the 6th grade, not many families can afford schooling further than that. (Murphy-Graham 2012, 51–52; Causey 2016.)
In Honduras, schooling is impaired with “low teacher attendance, shortened class days and high grade-repetition rates” (Pavon 2008, 196). In addition, reducing illiteracy, improving the coverage, increasing the average level of schooling and academic performance, and decreasing high dropout rates and absenteeism are some of the challenges Honduran educational system faces. (Secretaría de Educación 2010, 15.)
The children who attend school do not necessarily receive consistent education that provides minimum proficiency in the school subjects (Gavin 2017, 5; Meyer 2017). Especially the schools in rural areas lack adequate teaching materials, equipment, furniture and technology.
In the public sector, students receive considerably fewer instructing days and teaching hours compared to the private sector. (Secretaría de Educación 2010, 22.)
2.2 Description of Early English Language Education in the National Curriculum
According to National Curriculum for the 1st cycle of Basic Education (2003, 60–61) English is described as the target language in foreign language teaching for social necessity due, mainly, to the strong historical, economic, cultural and social relations with the United States. Various educational centers have contributed to providing access to English language education but often teaching only at upper secondary level, to which a great majority of the population does not have access. Many bilingual schools have emerged and taken the initiative to respond to the expectations for teaching a foreign language at the preschool and primary levels, and so, a growing number of children have the chance to study English. In 2003, English was included in the 2nd cycle of Basic Education in order to provide English language education for the majority, to meet the challenges of the 21st century and to develop the citizens’ communicative skills in a foreign language in the globalized world. (Diseño Curricular Nacional para la Educación Básica 2003, 60–61.)
In the National Curriculum, the English language education is described to raise awareness of intercultural matters and other languages, to enable students to communicate effectively and gain a new appreciation of themselves and their environment. It works as a tool for students to access cultural goods and the possibilities to improve their quality of life in a meaningful way.
Through English language education, students can acquire those kinds of communicative and academic competences, that the nation needs in order to develop. (Diseño Curricular Nacional para la Educación Básica 2003, 60–62.)
The English language curriculum consists of oral and written language studies and reflection on the language—literary production and expression integrated in these sections. The oral and written language studies focus on strengthening students’ reading and writing, listening and speaking skills joined with Spanish. By the end of the 1st cycle of Basic Education, the students should be able to use oral and written English to meet the need for communication, recreation
and problem-solving, and appreciate plurilingualism as a source of individual and social enrichment. They should produce simple written and oral messages relating to people, situations, classroom activities and events in their immediate environment, and interpret simple and contextualized oral and written messages, coming from everyday communicative contexts and the media and linked to their experiences and interests. (Diseño Curricular Nacional para la Educación Básica 2003, 60–62.)
Students should show awareness of literary arts, identifying, interpreting, enjoying and recreating oral and written literary productions (stories, drama, rhymes, riddles, songs, tongue twisters, traditional children's games, etc.) As a means of playful and emotional expression and as form of appropriation of culture. In addition, they should be aware of different languages in the country (Spanish, Garífuna, Miskito, Tawahka, Tolupan, Pech, Ch'orti' and English), value them as national cultural heritage and a source of personal enrichment, having ethnic and cultural self-esteem and valuing one’s bilingualism or multilingualism. (Diseño Curricular Nacional para la Educaión Básica 2003, 60–62.)
2.3 The Christian Bilingual Primary School
The Christian bilingual primary school is located next to a small farming village, El Suyatal, of 3000 people. The school offers Christian education in a bilingual context and aims to provide education for the community, another option to the state education that is run by teachers of the government. There are no other bilingual schools nearby, so it is important to the community.
The school is missionary work based. Many of the students do not belong to the church but most of the teachers do. (Private discussion with a board member 2019.)
The school accepts only students who start in the kindergarten or 1st grade, already have good enough English proficiency or transfer from another bilingual school (Private discussion with the headmaster 2019). They add on one grade each year when the oldest students move on to the next grade. In the summer 2018, there were approximately 100 students between kindergarten and 7th grade and a little more than 10 teachers and teacher assistants, both native and non-native, working as missionary volunteers for varying lengths of time.
Teaching takes place in two languages, Spanish and English. The bilingual education is rather immersion or emergent style oriented, Spanish and English often held separate, using one teaching language at a time. Bilingual teachers could utilize the ESL (English as a Second Language) teaching approach and use both languages in their instruction if they wanted but volunteers with no official teacher training were encouraged to use emergent style and keep everything in English. (Private discussion with the headmaster 2019.)
Approximately 14 different subjects were taught in the school in 2018, some of which the school had decided to add in the curriculum following other bilingual schools’ practices. The subjects taught were math, Bible, Spanish, science, music, art and practical arts, P.E., social studies in both languages, and English studies consisting of spelling, language, grammar, phonics and reading. According to one of the teachers (2019), some of the subjects taught in English used curriculums from different sources, e.g. private Christian school curriculums or curriculums used in homeschooling. Not all subjects had an official curriculum, so the teachers used materials that they deemed useful and suitable for their class or which they created themselves. Spanish language studies and social sciences in Spanish were however regulated by the Honduran government and the subjects followed the national curriculum.
Learning English is considered important in the school as it opens a lot of opportunities, both inside and outside Honduras (Private discussion with a teacher 2018). It also gives the students the advantage of meeting people all over the world who they would not meet if they were monolingual or attending a regular school (Private discussion with a board member 2019). The parents’ attitudes towards the bilingual education are very positive. Not many parents have higher education or speak English themselves, which can make supporting the children’s language learning challenging. Many social issues affect the family life and children’s learning, as well as the teachers’ work.
The school has a highly positive impact on the community, and they strive to connect with the families, involve them and support them. The school aims to reach the people in the community through the education they offer and share the gospel with them. (Private discussion with a board member 2019.) The school is a part of a larger organization that also has a health center beside the school. Furthermore, they offer private lessons for handicapped children as well as work for the locals on their plantations.
3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION
3.1 English Language Education Globally
Learning foreign languages in today’s globalized world is an essential 21st century skill that promotes communication and collaboration and raises global awareness; through foreign language proficiency, one is able to operate in culturally and linguistically diverse contexts and gain cross-cultural skills, “develop respect and openness to those whose culture, religion, and views on the world may be different” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills 2011, 5). Especially interest in teaching English as primary language has rapidly increased worldwide (Enever 2015, 17). Indeed, numerous development and English language projects have been implemented globally. English plays an important role facilitating international employability, mobility and tourism. (Coleman 2010.) On the other hand, there are also some issues that lie in the uneven distribution to English education and its overemphasized importance, which may become “a means of barring access to the less privileged” (Coleman 2010, 16).
3.2 Age Factor in Language Learning
The advantages of starting foreign language learning early on are often promoted for socio-political reasons, and as established, the importance of learning languages, English specifically, results from globalization (Enever 2015, 17). However, much debate has been going on over
the existence of an age factor in language learning and whether young language learners are better off compared to older beginners (Singleton 2003, 3).
There is not enough evidence to claim that there is a specific critical period that would allow young learners, traditionally meaning children prior to puberty, automatically learn a second language better than older ones, or that the decline in language learning capacity with age could be explained in terms of the critical period theory. (Singleton 2003, 8–16; Pfenninger &
Singleton 2017, 7–11.)
Various co-occurring factors in language learning favor young learners but they “have nothing to do with effects of biological ageing per se” (Pfenninger & Singleton 2017, 10). For instance, Halliwell (1992) presents, that young children’s creative use of language and risk taking when communicating is characteristic for them, as well as their ability to tolerate ambiguity and leaning on paralinguistic features of communication when creating meanings. Young children tend to focus less on accuracy and may for example make up new words. She continues by adding that not only do imagination and fantasy have a significant role in their lives, but they also have “an instinct for interaction and talk”, which play a part in the way they learn languages. (Enever 2015, 19–20.) Johnstone (2009, 34) also mentions that for young children acquiring linguistic sound systems is relatively easy. Moreover, early start provides a great potential in establishing positive attitudes in young learners that can affect their future language learning (Enever 2015, 25). Young learners’ attitudes towards learning foreign languages are generally very positive (Cenoz 2003, 79), but cannot be straightforwardly connected with age.
A negative first contact with a language can leave a lasting mark on aptitudes, motivation and long-term learning. (Pfenninger & Singleton 2017, 96.)
In language learning, older beginners, on the other hand, may benefit from their knowledge of how language works, and they have a more sophisticated concept of the world. Their interactive and cognitive skills are more developed, and they have obtained a wider range of learning strategies. These strategies may aid them especially in instructional settings. (Enever 2015, 25;
Johnstone 2009, 34; Pfenninger & Singleton 2017, 11.)
However, Johnstone (2009, 34) suggests that the key benefits of starting early lie in spending more time learning the language and having the opportunity to make use of both the young and the older learners’ advantages – young ones thus employing two sets of advantages, whereas older ones can employ only one. (Enever 2015, 21–22; Johnstone 2009, 34.) In terms of critical age period, most studies argue that even though it is evident that adult starters acquire the
language at a faster rate, the older age may be a disadvantage in ultimate attainment of the language (Nikolov 2009, 4). Krashen (1985, 12) suggests that, “older acquirers progress more
language at a faster rate, the older age may be a disadvantage in ultimate attainment of the language (Nikolov 2009, 4). Krashen (1985, 12) suggests that, “older acquirers progress more