Ethical Mechanisms

Mechanisms are framework through which ends or goals are achieved. Ethical Mechanisms help to guarantee ethical standards and values. Some ethical

mecha-nisms are independence, discretion, participation, expertise, reforms, accountabil-ity, transparency, motivation, enlightenment, laws, and codes/sanctions.

Independence can create room for an ethical climate (Brower & Shrader 2000).

The interpretation of an ethical climate is self-formative process in which mean-ings are selected, checked and employed in the appropriate sense (Mangham 1986: 31). The levels of discretions are the level of moral rules; the level of ethi-cal analysis; and the post-ethiethi-cal level. We have these various levels, because advocating a simple linear rationality is not feasible but rather, being self-aware and clear about the bases of our action. Discretion and obligation go together in most instances; the exercise of discretion should be in agreement with wishes of the citizens. (Cooper 2006: 22, 26, 82, & 168.) Independence and discretion as ethical mechanisms are sometimes used interchangeably, but their usages and relevance also go with scope or limit of application and dimension.

Lawton (1998: 95) has stated the relevance of ethical guideline. A code of ethics is represented by mission statement, because they provide broad direction (Geuras

& Garofalo 2005: 109). An ethics code can be described as a framework strongly rooted in public sector values that nurtures and keeps ethical behaviour (Kerna-ghan 1997: 41). One standing reason for this high level of support is that both business and government executives see code of ethics as a key representation of professionalism (Bowman & Williams 1997: 517–518). Code of ethics can pro-ject ideals, norms, and obligations; they can be inspirational, presenting lofty val-ues and ideal; and above all can set an ethical status to which members of a pro-fession may project the moral optimum rather than the moral minimum set up by ethics legislation (Cooper 1998). Bowman and Williams further argue that codes of ethics demand more than simple compliance; they compel the exercise of judgement and acceptance of responsibilities for decisions rendered, which are the real task of ethics (1997).

Ethical codes create prima facie obligations that guide professionals (Cooper D.

2004: 43), and are most essentially focused on keeping high ethical standards in government service and increasing public confidence in the integrity of public officials and employees. (Zimmerman 1982: 222.) According to Mcdonald (2009:

363) the enhancement of codes needs: “relevant content, periodic revision, codes that match policy, simple terminology, the use of examples, mechanisms by which they are disseminated and supported, and sanctions clearly communicated and action where violations have occurred.” Most organizations are daily beset with challenges of distinguishing among rules, laws, and behaviours; ethical codes which remain within the familiar boundaries of conventional public administra-tion are necessary for solving challenges (Geuras & Garofalo 2005: 13).

Participation is necessary in one form or another in order to achieve co-operative harmony; Likert links participation to high productivity, good relationships, and stable labour relations (Ibbetson & Whitemore 1977: 5 23). Being accountable is close to being transparent; because accountability and legitimacy play important roles in transparency improvement (Mitchell 2011: 1882). Dating to ancient times, practitioners and scholars together have noted the relevance of accountabil-ity for the survival of social systems (Gelfand, Lim, & Raver 2004: 135). Ac-countability could be in external or internal form; acAc-countability is said to be in-ternal in most cases at the intra-organizational level and exin-ternal at the inter-organizational or public level. Accountability has been linked to various phenom-ena, but the main linkage of accountability to effective functioning of organiza-tions is perhaps not surprising (Gelfand et al. 2004: 136).

Plato’s idea of philosopher-king/ruler as stated in his republic is probably the most notable classical representation of expertise in governance (Lehtonen 2010:

28). The support for legitimate consumer expectations and active participation through internet-driven information revolution are some representations of the knowledge era (Laing, Hogg, Newholm & Keeling 2009: 81). Knowledge within a management context refers to creating, embedding, organising, storing, protect-ing, synthesisprotect-ing, transferrprotect-ing, and using knowledge. Experts, drawing on the resource based notion claim that knowledge is the most strategically relevant re-source of a firm and holistic management. (Alvesson 2004: 1–7 & Nonaka & To-yama 2005.) Knowledge management is resolving problems effectively and quickly from one perspective. It is also seen as a systematic paradigm to help people to access and use important information with the ability to distinguish the

“wood from the trees.” Another perspective of knowledge management is that of viewing it as a process of linking the appropriate people to the appropriate infor-mation at the accurate time. Four key concepts that find importance at knowledge management activities are wisdom, knowledge, information and data, which help individuals to apply their knowledge for the benefits of the entire society (Brelade 2003: 5–6.)

The concept of ‘motivation’ refers to the conditions that urge action (Yu 2000:

120). Motivational theory, deals with the fundamental nature of work and its so-ciological aspects. The classical reward-punishment system of the so called ‘he-donists’ whose view of man as a creature with an objective to seek pleasure and forsake pain in life, made earlier emphasis on punishment as a priority. However, in recent times, the reward system that includes bonus schemes, profit-sharing and merit rating has become imperative. Aggregately, encouraging people to work falls under four categories: Financial incentives; work enjoyment; elements of the carrot-and-stick management philosophy; and environment and job

stimu-lations. Motivation is fairly complete under the collective framework of consulta-tion, work evaluaconsulta-tion, recruitment and selecconsulta-tion, performance appraisal, support for supervisors, participation, discipline and grievances, health and safety, and work measurement. (Ibbetson & Whitemore 1977: 1 5.)

Motivation is doing something with a drive. The balance between individual and collective identifications is relevant in defining people’s motivations for action (Simmons 2009: 62). The collective wholeness of man’s needs must be the bed-rock of motivation theory. Motivation theory is unique, because of its arrange-ment of human needs hierarchical or in an order of necessity. The concept of mo-tivation generally is used to describe an arousal of interest by any means, which includes the use of negative and positive incentives (Ibbetson & Whitemore 1977:

20). The terms motivation and performance are in most cases referred to as clas-sical concepts in public management. Any discussion on performance is never complete without motivation. If a public officer does not go with requirement of an office; lose enablement to distinguish self from office; feel lack of respect; are unpaid; and the management does not work in favour of integrity, then high per-formance and ethical ideals are highly threatened (Dodel 1999).

The idea of reformation is another ethical mechanism. According to Pollitt and Bouckaert (2004: 15): “we are aware that reform is a term with deep roots in the politics of improvement and refers not to total change, but to the reshaping of something that is already in existence.” Reform is characterised by willingness to experiment, to look at issues with fresh eyes, to challenge received willingness and to set apart the barnacles of past belief. It is in some cases referred to the re-framing of new ideas, concepts, and modes of thinking to explicate and satisfacto-rily solve problems confronted. (Shaw 2009: 20 21.)

Enlightenment or education is one ethical mechanism, because of its eye opening oriented nature. Enlightenment has special links to transparency and accountabil-ity (ICPC 20101). It is obvious that ethical mechanisms are numerous, but they all have one thing in common, which concerns how better goals are achieved.