1
Food Insecurity and How It Affects Women at The Community Level
Jebet Kiplagat
Department of Geographical and Historical Studies University of Eastern Finland
Master’s Thesis
30
thOctober 2017
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ABSTRACT
Kenya has been experiencing food insecurity for many years now, this is due to lack of poor resources governance, unsustainable farming methods, lack of proper institutional frameworks and lack of proper agricultural skills and education from its population. Not only has this brought on caused thousands of deaths, but also millions sleep hungry and lacking a means to earn an income. Rural women, girls and infants are even more affected by food insecurity. Their problems need to be resolved and they too need to be given a voice to speak for themselves. With the empowerment of rural women and girls, there is a result of improved food security within Kenya, as women within the household oversee nutrition. The Kenyan governments has made efforts to cater for the rural women, however, are the adequate? The analysis of the Kenyan Constitution of 2010, the Kenyan Food Security Bill of 2014 and the Kenyan National Food Security and Nutrition Policy will be done to see how effective these frameworks are in ensuring food security within Kenya. Other programmes which Kenya has taken part of in conjunction with various organizations to help empower rural people, women and awareness of gender equality will be discussed. This study will reveal that indeed the Kenyan Government has made efforts to ensuring food security through the empowerment of women at large and rural women. With the assistance of the Kenyan Government, several organizations have begun making initiatives to assist in the development of rural women towards a more food secure path. These organizations include the USAID, Kenya Tuna Uwezo, Peace Initiative Kenya, ASAL Strategy of Vision 2030 and the Rural Development Programme. Through these initiatives that empower rural women and girls through education, farming and agricultural skills, nutrition knowledge, there is an increase in food stability and improved nutrition among these communities and households. This is a key stride to eradicating hunger, malnutrition and food security. The intentions and efforts of the Kenyan government will be considered and analysed, to see whether they are making adequate measures and strides in the fight against food insecurity, poverty, malnutrition and hunger. This thesis hopes to help in Kenya’s pathway to become a nation that is food secure and that it can be done in a sustainable way.
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ACKNOWLEGMENTS
To my Kenyans, in aiming to strive for a better, greener future.
4 Contents
ABSTRACT ... 2
ACKNOWLEGMENTS ... 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... 5
CHAPTER 1: ... 6
1.1 BACKGROUND ... 6
1.2 INTRODUCTION OF KENYA ... 9
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ... 11
CHAPTER 2: MAIN CONCEPTS ... 12
2.1 Food Studies in Social Sciences and Food Policy ... 12
2.3 How does food security affect rural women, in Kenya and in Africa as a continent? ... 17
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ... 21
3.1 Theory of Policy Cycle ... 21
3.2 Methodology of Policy Evaluation and Analysis ... 23
3.3 Methodology of Document Analysis ... 25
3.4 Research Data ... 28
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ... 32
4.1 Research Question 1: ... 32
What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women? ... 32
The Kenyan Constitution of 2010 ... 32
National Food Security and Nutrition Policy ... 34
The Kenyan Food and Security Bill of 2014 ... 39
4.2 Research Question 2: ... 40
Are the Kenyan food policies in line with the International Food Policy Standards? ... 40
4.2.1 Analysis of the Kenyan Constitution, the FSB and the NFSNP ... 41
4.3 Research Question 3: ... 46
What initiatives in Kenya help empower rural women in ensuring food security? ... 46
4.3.1 USAID in Kenya ... 47
4.3.2 Kenya Tuna Uwezo ... 50
4.3.3 Peace Initiative Kenya (PIK)... 51
4.3.4 Other Rural Policy Frameworks and Organizations That Are Assisting Rural Women ... 52
4.3.5 Discussion ... 55
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ... 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 59
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASAD - Agriculture Sector Development Strategy ASAL – Aris and Semi-Arid Lands
CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women DEVAW - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW
GA – General Assembly GBV – Gender based violence
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization FSB - Food Security Bill
ICESCR - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights KC – Kenyan Constitution
MDGs – Millennium Development Goals
NFSNP – National Food Security and Nutrition Policy SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals
RIDEP- Rural Initiatives Development Programme
VGGT - The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in The Context of National Food Security
VGRTF - Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USAID – United States
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CHAPTER 1:
1.1 BACKGROUND
Food insecurity as a global issue has caused millions of deaths. There is yet to be a single solution on how to adequately feed the growing world’s population, although many solutions have been suggested, none totally answers the question on how to ensure food security in a sustainable way. Solutions are being created in portions and segments, thus my thesis will tackle the issues related to food insecurity from a policy aspect. With the research questions discussed in this thesis, one segment of issues related to food insecurity will have advanced in one step towards a holistic global solution to food insecurity. As an issue falling under food studies, food security can be attained through the lenses of women empowerment. Food security is a major challenge to the Government of Kenya, with little over 10million Kenyans suffering from chronic food insecurity and poor nutrition (IFAD, 2016). This research paper is important because it will show the gaps that need to be filled and fixed by the Kenyan government to achieve food security to the required international standards. In doing so, rural women will be given the special and much required attention, funding, education and training to assist the Kenyan government to secure adequate food for all individuals living within its borders. For sustainable development to be achieved, there must be strides and efforts to have a global change in behaviour and habits, there must also be public awareness from the environmental institutions, NGOs and even the government in helping the public to live a more sustainable life.
In Kenya, the growing problem of food and nutrition insecurity is linked to the disappointing growth of agricultural production over the last two decades. Only 7% of Kenya’s land (582,000km2) has adequate and reliable rainfall, soil and topography suitable for crop production. Another 5% of the land can sustain crops in years when there was adequate rainfall. The remaining arid and semi-arid lands constitute over 80% of the country’s land mass (D. M. Nyariki, 2002, p. 156). Issues such as land grabbing have been seen throughout Kenya’s history, especially with the pastoral tribes, these issues are still seen even in modern times. Women and children are the most affected because this deprives them of the ability to provide for their households through agriculture.
Household food security is the ability of the household to secure enough food to provide for all the nutrient requirements of all members of the household. The food available should be both safe and of good quality, this includes the steps of cultivation, harvesting, transportation, storage of the food, processing the food, marketing the food, then finally
7 preparing and cooking the food (Latham, 1997). Households should therefore provide the nutrients required for their families, throughout the whole year. Each family requires the ability, knowledge and resources to be able to adequately provide for their household. A household is considered to be secure when they can adequately provide for the food needed by its family members (Smith, 1994, p. 20). Households experience food insecurity in the most basic sense when their resources are inadequate simply to obtain ‘enough food’ to meet the basic needs, lack of which eventually results in hunger (D. P. Keenan, 2001, p. 1).
Household food security can be threatened by increased prices, job loss, income reduction, rent increases, larger number of dependent persons, inadequate landholdings, landlessness, sharecropping and other causes of poverty (Latham, 1997). There are two reasons according to Pinstrup-Anderson (2008) as to why household food security may not assure food security for all its members:
1. Household food preferences are not considered over the acquisition of other goods and services such as school fees and housing.
2. The intrahousehold food allocation may not be according to the needs of each individual house member. This is evidenced by large household with both undernourished and obese household members.
Inadequate food, be it to food shortages or to inappropriate consumer behaviour or intrahousehold distribution is termed as household food insecurity (Latham, 1997). The problem faced by the poor is that they are powerless to affect a change in the distribution of income without which development is impossible (Redclift, 1984). Few human rights have been referred to as often as the right of food (Smith, 1994, p. 8). The right to an adequate standard of living including food is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Latham, 1997). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, Article 25 states that “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.” (Assembly, 1948). “We the Ministers and Plenipotentiaries representing 159 nations…declare our determination to eliminate hunger and to reduce all forms of malnutrition. Hunger and malnutrition are unacceptable in a world that was both the knowledge and the resources to end this human catastrophe.” These were the opening statements of the World Declaration on Nutrition
8 (ICN) held in December 1992 in Rome (Latham, 1997). The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1966, Article 11 of the Covenant enshrines the right of food as “The State parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually, and through international cooperation, the measures, including specific programmes, which are needed to improve:
To improve methods of production, conservation, and the distribution of food.
To ensure in equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need.” (Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966).
The World Food Conference in 1974 proclaims that “Every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition to develop fully and maintain their physical and mental faculties.” (1974) Taking food security in consideration with human rights requires the following as stated by Keenan et al. (2001):
That the human rights community recognizes the validity of economic and social rights.
That international efforts to develop supervisory mechanisms in respect of these rights be intensified.
That States draw up frameworks for the monitoring of their own efforts.
That the international community aid households and States who are unable to realize this right through their own efforts.
The responsibilities of the state are to respect, protect and fulfil the human rights (Smith, 1994, p. 10). Smith (1994) continues to further elaborate that states are obligated to not do anything that will hinder individuals’ abilities to provide for their own needs, to protect individuals from their means of livelihood as well as to aid individuals who are unable to meet their own food needs. National food sovereignty was and is still used to as the standard unit of measuring the extent which has made available food needed/demanded regardless if the food was domestically grown or imported. If a country is unable to produce its own food, it should therefore be prepared to import. If they are unable to import the required amount demanded, they are therefore not considered as food sovereign (Pinstrup-Anderson, 2008, p.
287).
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1.2 INTRODUCTION OF KENYA
Kenya, home to more than 46 million citizens, per the World Bank 2015 statistics. It is culturally diverse with over 40 tribes, is in the Eastern part of Africa, with the equator passing right through it. With its neighbours being Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and the Indian Ocean (in an anticlockwise direction). Kenya has only two climatic seasons, rainy and dry. Having gained its independence from Great Britain in 1963, Kenya is known for its wildlife, national parks and reserves and Olympic athletes. The Nobel Peace Prize holder, the late Professor Wangare Maathai was Kenyan, she was the first African woman to achieve this title. United Nations Environmental Programme headquarters is in Kenya’s capital city of Nairobi. Kenya has signed and ratified the following global environmental conventions, the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention on Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS).
Currently Kenya’s food policies are designed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, with the guidance and advice of the UN, FAO and other international food policy bodies. In the last two years, Kenya has produced several ministerial policies which include Kenya Veterinary Policy for developments in the animal industry; Draft Livestock Breeding Bill 2015 for the regulation of livestock breeding; the National Irrigation Policy Draft 2015 and the National Irrigation Bill 2015 (Ministry of Environment, 2017).
10 A map of Kenya (map 1)
Source: http://www.mapsofworld.com/kenya/maps/kenya-map.jpg
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1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In this thesis, the research questions that will be asked and answered are the following below.
The first question is the main thesis research question.
1. What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women?
2. Are the Kenyan food policies in line with the International Food Policy Standards?
3. What initiatives in Kenya help empower rural women, adolescent girls and infants in ensuring food security?
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CHAPTER 2: MAIN CONCEPTS
2.1 Food Studies in Social Sciences and Food Policy Food is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as:
“1. a. material consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, and fat used in the body of an organism to sustain growth, repair, and vital processes and to furnish energy; also: such food together with supplementary substances (such as minerals, vitamins, and condiments) b. inorganic substances absorbed by plants in gaseous form or in water solution 2. nutriment in solid form
3. something that nourishes, sustains, or supplies” (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
Food is a fundamental component for human existence and is crucial for our survival, health and well-being. (Commission) Food has been used by different communities to express their different cultures and their beliefs. From production to consumption, the various stages involved belong to different disciplines. Food studies being a new topic has gained momentum over the past few years. This increased popularity in the field is due to the growing global population and the constant need to adequately supply the demand for food.
“Food studies can be considered to constitute a new movement, not only as an academic discipline but also to change society.” (Nestle, 2010). Almerico describes food studies as not only as the study of food but is more concerned with food-related area of study. Previously food studies when mentioned would automatically mean gastronomy and culinary studies but nowadays it incorporates the production and consumption of food in different cultures and communities worldwide. Due to food studies being a new discipline, it is highly interdisciplinary according to (Haber, 2005), to solve the challenges faced by continuous population growth, there must be a unification of the different disciplinaries into one unit.
Different Disciplines Involved with Food
a. Producing food Agricultural Sciences
Rural Sociology b. Processing, preserving and packing Food Science
Technology c. Marketing and selling of food Business
d. Shopping for food Sociology
Consumer research
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e. Cooking Culinary studies
Gastronomy f. Division of labour in the kitchen Sociology
g. Serving the food Hospitality Management
h. Eating the food from digestion to excretion
Medical Field Public Health Waste Management (Wilk, 2012) Different Disciplines Involved with Food
Historical and contemporary society can be well understood through the study of food according to Haber (2005, p.8). Almerico (2014) agrees that through the study of food, researchers who apply a food studies mind-set delve deeper into the understanding of the everyday practices of food and eating habits in various cultures. As we know, food and its preparation and consumption are a representation of various cultures. Some communities and cultures going to the extent of proudly claiming some delicacies as their own. For example, the British with tea, the Indians with curry, the Japanese with sushi, the Italians with pasta, and so on. These communities, cultures and nations have found a sense of pride with movements spoken through multiple cultures (Nestle, 2010, p. 175).
One branch in food studies is feminine food studies which focuses on the role of women with food. This subsection also deals with the overlooked roles of women and the fundamental roles they play in the preparation of food. Haber (2005) notes that within work involved with food studies generally ignored the role of women in cooking. Allen (2007) posits that the main role of women is largely food related work such as planting but they have very little influence over the control of resources and the decision-making process in the food industry and food policy. All aspects of women’s role in food must be studied to better understand the dynamics of food studies. The answers to solving our current global food problems and the achievement of sustainability involves understanding women and food studies. Avakian and Haber’s book titled ‘From Betty Crocker to Feminist Studies:
Critical Perspectives on Women and Food enlightens on the gradual rise of food studies in the recent years since the 1970 up to date. The continual emergence of this fairly new studies has helped researchers understand the dynamic aspects of food and its related research, solving food related issues involves the researchers to look at how women in the past and present have been handling food and its preparation during times when it is plenty and in scarcity.
14 Within the vulnerabilities of the global food system, is where climate change, environmental issues and food security come in. The intertwining of climate change and food insecurity has only assisted in increased hunger and malnutrition. With the multiple sub-systems in the food system, each sub-system has its own rational thus creating a complex web of interdependencies (P. Jokinen, 2015, p.14). These are known as wicked problems that have no one single answer but is like a puzzle where multiple answers will lead to a solution. The first definition of wicked problems was by Rittel & Webber (1973) and they described it as problems that are difficult to have a scientific rational approach, due to lack of clearly detailed definition and stakeholder’s points of view in the development of and solving the problem (R. Grochowska, 2014, p. 824).
Jokinen et al. give the example biofuel production, land grabbing and food production. These three intertwine when there is an increase demand for biofuels, the prices of the biofuels rise simultaneously causing an increase in food commodities. This all results in the continued demand for land for both sectors of food and energy production. In these examples, it is clear to see that the issue of food insecurity is accelerated by this tug of war between these sectors.
Food policy was previously known as agricultural policy and dealt with increasing output to guarantee sufficient food supply, taxation of farmers and preserving the rights of land holders (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 30). Food Policy as defined by the Vancouver Food Policy Council is “any decision, program or project that is endorsed by a government agency, business, or organization which effects how food is produced, processed, distributed, purchased, protected and disposed. Food policy operates at the global, national, provincial, regional, local and institutional levels.” (Council, 2017). Another definition of food policy is a plan of action designed created by one or multiple persons to accomplish a specific task, with food policies, these are intended for food systems (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 29).
The governments use these policies related to food systems to control and regulate with the intention of ensuring sufficient and healthy food for their citizens. McMillan states that there are a complex range of variables when dealing with food policy such as age, gender, rural- urban divisions, production, distribution patterns, social class, food aid, social and cultural conflict, cultural biases, different types of market, consumer patterns, international food trade competition, individual national policies, health and well-being are some of the examples (D. McMillan, 1991, p.8). The dilemma of food security can be resolved through increased production of food, the liberalization of the global food system and the use of biotechnology. Both Jokinen et al and Grochowka argue that this is not the case however,
15 there needs to be an increased food production on the same or smaller amounts of land and that the approach must be sustainably, adequately and equitably. Food security as a goal in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU advocates the increase in agricultural production and productivity. Although the CAP mainly focuses on this rather than on the increased environmental effects that will be brought about by increased agricultural land and productivity. Jokinen et al further continues to explain that the real issue that will arise when sufficient food supply is achieved is the lack of equitable distribution of food and the ineffective use of food. A challenge arising by genetically modified food, commonly known as GM or GMO. A case study of the USA through the World Food Programme to Southern Africa states brings to light the fear of unknown side effects associated with GM foods.
Proceeding severe dry spells in the region, the USA donated 50% of the aid in form of GM food. This offer was rejected by Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe due to the maize being genetically modified. They feared health effects on their citizens, livestock and agricultural biodiversity as well as how the GM maize will affect their agricultural commodities for export (Zerbe, 2004, p. 599). Zimbabwe continued to reject the GM maize even after its fellow neighbours requesting that the maize be milled instead. Though they wanted their own team of efforts to research the GM maize, they were mocked by USA officials for this move. Although there being ample supply of maize in Kenya and Tanzania, this move by the USA was one in their own self interest, Zerbe concludes that this was a result of specific American policy objectives that advanced their goals of surplus disposal, market development and foreign policy considerations.
Therefore, the solution to starting is through policies that aim to understand these wicked problems. The basic juggle in todays food policy is the balance between environment, health and the society, will help in forming policies that are crosscutting to the issues. The role women play in food security must be looked at and their role is a fundamental point to understanding what we need to do to help achieve and maintain food security. The education of women in better methods and techniques to achieve food security is one of the main points our governmental institutions and agricultural NGOs must consider. If the role of women in food related would continue to be ignored and played down the result would be continued devastating to the research of food studies.
16 2.2 Food Security and Food Insecurity
The sister concepts of food insecurity and food security were formally launched at the first World Food Conference in 1974 (Carney M. A., 2015, p. 21). Food security as defined by the FAO exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Summit, 1996). The lack of these factors leads to food insecurity.
Food Security is measured by the absence or the low prevalence of hunger. Hunger is therefore defined as the uneasy and painful sensation caused by a lack of food (D. P. Keenan, 2001, p. 1). Self-sufficiency is when the country produces the food it needs or that which its population demands (Pinstrup-Anderson, 2008, p. 282). There are four pillars of food security as described by Nelleman (2009):
1. The Availability of Food: This is dependent on the food that a country produces or receives through trade. It can be increased through self-sufficiency and lowering the dependency of other regions. Availability can be increased through more investment in agricultural research and development and using mineral fertilizers.
2. The Stability of Food Supply: This is easily affected by fluctuations in price and conflicts. Temporary disruptions have long lasting effects.
3. Accessibility to Food: This is dependent on the physical access and affordability of the food. Importation can make accessibility to food easier and cheaper.
4. Utilization of Food: This is how food is used through consumption, processing, food storage, through nutrition, food safety and quality.
Food insecurity is when all people, at all times, lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Abraham Tadesse Tantu, 2015, p. 1). This occurs when the people are not able to have enough healthy food for their consumption, they either eat food that is not of good quality and in extreme cases they tend to go hungry for days. It may be caused by the unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution or inadequate use of food at the household level. Food insecurity, poor conditions of health and sanitation and inappropriate care and feeding practices are the major causes of poor nutritional status. Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal or transitory (The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015, 2015). According to Per Pinstrup-Anderson (2008) two types of food insecurity include:
17 Transitory food insecurity: describes a periodic food for example seasonal food insecurity.
Permanent food insecurity: a long-term lack of access to sufficient food.
With this understanding of the interrelations of food security and food insecurity, one sees that food insecurity can be curbed through enhancing and enabling food security. The literature on food security has risen since the 1970s, where food security was mostly a national and global food supply concern. In 1972-74 there was a world food crisis, also f.
ex. in 2007-09. In the 1980s, the focus shifted then to household and individual levels, as well as food security becoming an important organizing principle. This surge of interest was caused by: the African famine of 1984-85, a concern with deteriorating basic needs during structural adjustments and the fruits of an intellectual progression which stretched through the entitlement theory in the early 1980s (Smith, 1994, p. 6). Malthus (1998, p.62) states that any temporary boost in food production is capable of relieving food insecurity would cause a rise in the population to a point that humanity was once again reduced to a condition of food insecurity. There are four reasons why achieving food security is harder than in 1978 Malthus’ time:
1. The significant share on the world population today is malnourished.
2. The global population is increasing.
3. Climate change and other environmental changes threaten future food production.
The food system itself is a major contributor to climate change and other environmental harms.
2.3 How does food security affect rural women, in Kenya and in Africa as a continent?
Rural women and men play different roles in guaranteeing food security for their households and communities (FAO, 2017). In the African communities, women are the homemakers, this is the perception men and women have (S. Sithole-Fundire, 1995). Men are the providers in the family household, they mainly go to look for work in the village and market areas, search for menial jobs to provide them with income to support their families. The man’s work is seen as more profitable (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 88). Men are also responsible for the field crops and their cultivation, they toil in the fields so they can produce food for the markets and for his family’s consumption. The cattle and livestock are a shared
18 responsibility in some African communities, herding and feeding them is sometimes allocated to children to do instead of the adults. The role of women is normally unrecognized, their role and situation in the rural areas depends on their geographic region, social class, age and ethnicity (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 88). Rural women carry out most home food processing, which ensures a diverse diet, minimizes losses and provides marketable products. Domestic chores like carrying water and firewood, doing agricultural and livestock tasks, as well as selling surplus from their harvest at the local markets. Women in food security and nutrition cultivate, harvest and prepare the food (FAO, 2017). In developing countries, women work more hours than men in housekeeping, childcare, fetching water, collecting firewood and in the fields. Women contribute three quarters of the labour requires to produce the food consumed in Africa, averagely they work sixteen hours a day (Gladwin, 1991, p. 50). Women are more likely to spend their incomes on food and children's needs - research has shown that a child's chances of survival increase by 20% when the mother controls the household budget. Women, therefore, play a decisive role in food security, dietary diversity and children's health (FAO, 2017).
Women are the backbone of these communities and contribute greatly towards the agricultural sector. African women provide 60-90% of subsistence agricultural labour;
dominate food production with labour contributions of 50-85% of total agricultural labour;
engage in a high percentage of cash crop labour, thereby generating household income for food purchases; have substantial decision-making power concerning timing, location of crops, use of inputs and intensity of crop management; provide 90% of the labour for collecting household water and fuel, 80% of the work in food storage and transport from farm to village, 90% of the work in hoeing and weeding and 60% of the work in hawking and marketing (Carney, 2015). The necessity of focusing on female famers is due to the accelerated rise in the number of households which are female-headed and may consequently be comprised by only female farmers and their descendants. In countries, such as Kenya and Malawi, the poorer the household, the more likely it is to be headed by a woman. These female-headed households include single mothers, divorced or widowed women, women whose husbands have abandoned them, those whose husbands are away for an unspecified amount of time including migrant labourers, those whose husbands make only a marginal contribution to the maintenance of the household due to disability and unemployment (Gladwin, 1991, p. 50).
19 Women face additional challenges when doing their daily responsibilities, such as collecting water and firewood, they must walk for long distances to rivers and forests on food to retrieve the water and firewood. They must leave their children and other responsibilities behind.
Access to transportation, water, energy and finances pose challenges to the rural women (Richardson, 2014). Majority of agricultural households across the world are largely hungry and poor, even though their prevailing mode of life is farming, they lack access to sufficient high quality land and other natural resources or means to seek self-employment, this eventually leads to hunger and malnutrition thus making individuals less productive (FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2015). Women face financial challenges and they do not have formal titles to their land (Richardson, 2014). Rural women are disadvantaged and cannot access the same opportunities and resources as men, these include land, energy, technology, loans, pesticides and fertilizers, training, information, public services, social protection and markets (Garcia M. D., 2013, pp. 88-89). If rural women were given the same access to these opportunities and resources, they would increase their yields up to 20-30%.
(UNIFEM) This gender discrimination shall end when the rural women are ensured avenues to achieve and receive education and health care (Sachs, 2015, pp. 54-55).
Pietila, H. & Vickers, J. (1996) concluded in their survey named The World Survey on the Role of Women that the survey enumerates the ways in which agricultural and rural development programmes have been jeopardized because of the actual and potential roles of women were not recognized. There are six main ways:
1. The workload women have is not usually taken into consideration, as well as the lack of equipment to assist the women with their workload.
2. Women’s performance in agricultural tasks are overlooked as well as their challenges in receiving agricultural information and training.
3. Women as independent farmers or livestock keepers was overlooked and women were largely left out of integrated rural development and other agricultural programmes.
4. The increase of family income is identified with an increase in women’s income.
5. Women’s labour is considered as family labour.
6. Women’s special needs and constraints as mothers and wives as small independent farmers and as heads of the household, are not considered in their access to credit and other services.
20 Women as well aren’t consulted on how much work they are to do and what their constraints are (J. P. Gittinger, 1987, pp. 135-136). These are some of the multitude of challenges rural women face.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Theory of Policy Cycle
With its origins in the 1950s, policy cycle framework serves as a basic template that allows systemization and comparison of different types of debates, approaches and models (Wegrich, 2007, p. 43). Policy Cycle has been identified to have a sequence of stages and phases, its conventional description of the stages in agenda-setting, policy formation, decision making, implementation and evaluation (sometimes leading to termination) (Wegrich, 2007, p. 43).
COMPARED STAGES MODEL OF PUBLIC POLICY Brewer &
DeLeon (1983)
Patton &
Sawicki (1993)
Viana (1996) Stone (1997) Birkland (2005)
Initiation Agenda setting Agenda setting
Estimation Verify, define, detail problem
Formulation Identify objectives
Policy design
Establish evaluation criteria Identify alternatives
Identify alternatives Predict consequences of alternatives Selection Evaluate
alternatives
Evaluate consequences Distinguish
among alternatives
Select optimal alternative
Implementation Implementation Implementation
Evaluation Monitor and evaluate
Evaluation
Compared Stages Model of Public Policy, (Florida, 2016).
22 For this thesis, I will use Viana’s four stage model of Policy Cycle, because of its general intake of the same aspects seen in the other models, Viana’s model in totality adequately suits this thesis. It is also simpler to understand, with four well defined stages. The stages of Viana’s model of the policy cycle include:
Stage 1: Agenda Setting – Problem Recognition and Issue Selection
This stage is seen to have the most chaos due to its great importance. “The agenda…is the list of subjects or problems to which government officials, are paying for serious attention at any given time.” (DeLeon, 1983, p. 3). Agenda-setting is the process of structuring the policy issue regarding potential strategies and instruments that shape the development of a policy in the subsequent stages of a policy cycle (Wegrich, 2007, p. 46). Initiation, used in Brewer and DeLeon’s model of policy process, although can still fall within this stage due to the same characteristics. Viana’s model of policy process although named as the formulation stage follows suit.
Stage 2: Policy Formation and Decision Making
This is where expressed problems, proposals, demands are transformed into government programs (Frank Fischer, 2007, p. 48). Policies are created and changed, this political and social process is crucial in policy conceptualization. (Organization) Identifying the cost, estimation of the effects of the solution, which solutions are suitable and the selection of policy instruments are all processes in this stage (Carney, 2013).
Stage 3: Implementation
Involves actions and mechanisms through which policies are given life. (Organization) Fischer (2007) argues that this however does not necessarily mean that the action on the ground will follow the policy makers’ goals and outlined objectives. He continues to define policy implementation as “what happens between the establishment of an apparent intention on the part of the government to do something, or to stop doing something, and the ultimate impact in the world of action” (Wegrich, 2007, p. 51). Brewer and DeLeon give a much broader and better definition of implementation as "Implementation is an important but frequently overlooked step in the general policy process model. Lacking proper implementation, policy innovation and selection may end up being little more than intellectual exercises; indeed, faulty policy implementation can invalidate the earlier, carefully considered steps in the policy process and thereby intensify the original problem.
23 The process, then, warrants our careful attention." (DeLeon, 1983, p. 249). Key questions to be asked in this stage include: How and by whom will programs be executed? How will allocation of resources be done and how will decisions be carried out?
Stage 4: Evaluation
This as defined by Patton & Sawicki (1993) is when “Analysts are also called upon to conduct quick ex-post analyses; that is, to conduct analyses of operating programs, to determine whether they are producing the desired results, to recommend whether they ought to be modified, and even to determine whether resources should be shifted to other programs.
Often these ex-post analyses must be conducted quickly using available data, but even quick analyses should be designed so that their outcomes can be evaluated in rigorous, reliable ways” (Patton, 1993, p. 6). Policy evaluation is an important, embedded and regular part of the political process and debate. They lead to patterns of policy-learning with different feedback systems and a potential restart of the policy process (Wegrich, 2007, p. 81).
Evaluation is known as the final stage in the policy process, it involves monitoring, analysis, criticism and assessment of existing or proposed policies. This allows governments to effectively and efficiently implement policies. (Organization)
Wegrich (2007, p. 71) further states that the policy process rarely has clear-cut beginnings and endings, these stages are sometimes mixed together and reshuffled. the focus will be on the fourth stage of the Policy Process.
3.2 Methodology of Policy Evaluation and Analysis
Policy evaluation is not a new concept, it has been used for years now among legislators, parliamentarians, agencies, governmental and non-governmental organizations, community members as well as other relevant policy stakeholders. Policy evaluations fulfil an important function within contemporary democracies. They assess a public policy regarding its effectiveness, efficiency or fitness for purpose. This information is not only potentially interesting for the public administration, but also for other institutions (Bundi, 2017). Policy analysis has many definitions, here are a few: Policy analysis is an applied social science discipline which uses multiple methods of inquiry and argument to produce and transform policy-relevant information that may be utilized in the political settings to resolve policy problems (Dunn, 1981, p. 35); Policy analysis is client-oriented advice relevant to public decisions and informed by social values (Schroeder); Policy analysis is a means of
24 synthesizing information including research results to produce the format for policy decisions (the laying out of alternative choices and of determining future needs for policy relevant information (Williams, 2011). According to Zechhauser (2011), the essence of policy analysis is described as the systematic comparison of alternative policies in terms of social values and in terms of systematic and rational consideration of alternatives… a rational decision maker who lays out goals and uses logical processes to discover the most effective way to achieve those goals. Policy analysis involves using quantitative and qualitative techniques to define a specific policy problem, demonstrate its impacts, and present the potential solutions. It also requires sophisticated methods to assess how the identified policy problems are obstructed by numerous variables (Frank Fischer, 2007). Its major goal line is to advance theories that contribute to a better understanding of society, with the accumulation of evidence, there is an eventual influence of policy makers in their
‘worldviews’ (Zeckhauser, 2011). Policy analysis is a process of inquiry aimed at developing and critically accessing information to understand and to improve public policies. It can be divided into analysis of policy which explains policies and how they develop or analysis for policy which involves formulation of policies and proposals. It can also be defined as “the process of clarifying a messy policy challenge, analyzing relevant information – including information on the specific context of the problem, clarifying, playing out the implications of and weighing options for action, making recommendations, and, in some cases, developing a strategic plan for implementation.” (Fleming, 2015). Analysis for policy is largely used for expert advices for public policy, such as consultants, think tanks and policy analysts, as well as information and judgments needed to solve issues. Analysis of policy leans more towards academics and has no general universal recognized methods yet generalizations are drawn from objectives. NGOs and governments have used the policy cycle to review their own policies as to see their viability, effectiveness, the progress which they have so far made as well as the retrogression. In reviewing policies, these organizations ensure that the policies are practical, functional and beneficial for the betterment of the world.
Evaluation research, in this case of policies, involves investigating policy programs to obtain all the information appropriate to the assessment of its performance, both progress and result;
and reporting of such information back to policy makers, this is when evaluation is a phase in the policy cycle. (Frank Fischer, 2007) In this thesis, policy evaluation shall be looked at as a phase within the Policy Cycle. The Kenyan Constitution, The Food Security Bill and
25 the Kenyan National Food and Nutrition Policy are the policy instruments used in this thesis.
Through the policy cycle, an assessment shall be made on its effectiveness, progress and measures taken to ensure that they are taking steps to empower women and specifically rural women. The advantages and shortcomings of these governmental documents are critical in ensuring that Kenya is taking action accordingly in the fight against food insecurity, hunger, malnutrition and poverty within its borders. The use of this policy evaluation is seen in Huitema, et. al’s article which emerging policy evaluations are seen across the EU, in countries such as the UK, Germany, Italy, Finland, Portugal and Poland. Policy evaluation was used to analyse climate change policy and their evolution under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a total of 259 evaluations were made. The study concluded that majority 58% of the policies were not commissioned, 34%
were commissioned and 8% undetermined, this showed that there is a significant gap between evaluation theory and practice. Another research on the Theory-based policy evaluation of 20 energy efficiency instruments, was based on an evaluation of 20 policy instruments from the US, Europe and Japan. The aim being to enable harmonization of the policy process across these countries. The research concluded that by using theory-based policy evaluation, it is not only easy to determine the success of a policy or not but that the reasons for its failure and success can be brought to light, and how to improve upon it.
3.3 Methodology of Document Analysis
“Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents both printed and electronic (computer-based and internet transmitted) materials…it requires that data be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding and develop empirical knowledge.” (Bowen, 2009, p. 27). Document analysis helps one to gain insight into a certain approach and enables the researcher to recognize patterns that might have been unrecognized or overlooked (Uni. of Texas, Document Analysis, 2015). Data analysis provides a wealth of information, these documents provide a means of tracking change and development. These research methods often combined with other qualitative research methods as a means of triangulation – the amalgamation of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon (Bowen, 2009, p. 28).
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of document analysis as regarded to by Bowen (2009). Document analysis has been viewed as an efficient way to research because of its time-saving qualities, thus causing it to be more efficient. Documents are usually very
26 easily accessible, mostly because they are in the public domain. The dawn of the internet brought along this added advantage. Along with cost effectiveness, this is due to the reduced amount of resources needed to gather data, when the data (contained in documents) has previously been gathered, the remainder is to gather knowledge and evaluation of this knowledge. Documents provide exact references and details of events which are happening or have already passed. The coverage also provided is broad due to the long-time span, many various settings and events. Some disadvantages expressed include the insufficient details that may be provided by these documents, this may allow room for ambiguous guesses because the documents being used for research were created for other purposes independent of the researches agenda. On top of that the data provided by these documents may have a biased view or selectivity. This incomplete collection of documents is maybe due to the partial release of documents by organizations. All in all, the data collected and obtained from these documents encourage the elevation of questions and situations that need to be considered and probed upon.
As per Bowen (2009, p. 29), there are four methods which document analysis has been used.
The first function is through data collection such as in the cases of historical events. These provide background data for the researcher like in contextualizing the data collected during an interview. The second function is the formation of research questions, while analysing these documents, questions come up that may need to be answered thus prompting the researcher to develop research questions that need answering for example during interviews.
The third function is providing additional data to the interviews and observations being conducted by the researcher. The fourth function is the documents are used for the purposes of tracking the changes and development that have happened over a certain period. Periodic and final reports are usually the documents analysed under this function. Lastly, the fifth function is the use of the documents to verify findings as a means of evidence, that is accompanied by other data that has been collected. It supplements data that needs further investigations.
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has been making reviews of food and agricultural policies in multiple countries in Africa under MAFAF Monitoring African Food and Agricultural Policies. Their aim it to see the effectiveness of these policies within these countries. For the purpose of this thesis, I shall focus on the reviews conducted nearby to Kenya as well as Kenya itself. Reviews of food and agricultural policies have been conducted in Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania. These reports mainly concentrate on the
27 commodity markets in these regions, incentives and how the producers and exporters of major commodities are affected. In the review for Kenya’s food and agricultural policies, one of the findings was that the budget going to agriculture and rural development has increased by 12%. “Rural development expenditure was almost equally distributed among rural education, health and infrastructure, with water and sanitation accounting for a much larger share than energy and roads.” (FAO, 2013). The World Food Programme (WFP) performed a research of Yemen’s food security and vulnerability. Their reason for using data analysis was to identify the gaps within the secondary information that can be filled by primary data. They mainly were faced with the challenge of irrelevant and not up-to-date secondary data that would leave room for unanswered gaps. The research concluded that in order to have ample research data that they would need to accompany the secondary data with primary data, which the Government of Yemen and donor agencies had already been providing through assessments conducted. Qualitative data and quantitative data complement each other while also providing various types of varied data (Forche, 2009, p.
91).
In conclusion, policy cycle, policy evaluation and analysis and document analysis have previously been used in previous works throughout the field of food studies. The World Health Organization (WHO) has conducted a report on the Comparative analysis of food and nutrition policies in WHO European Member States, the report aimed to collect the data from WHO European members and their development in sound food and nutrition policies.
This study was done to see how the region had developed in their policies related to food and nutrition as well as the emerging trends of the region. The report concluded that countries that had previously established national food and nutrition coordination bodies were the most effective because with the advice of these bodies, they manage to improve their policies and processes. It continued to state that food related issues are an interdisciplinary science and would require a holistic view to solve the issues arising from it. A few recommendations made in the report was to advice other members of WHO to create an advisory body that will advise policy makers, the advisory body should have guidelines established for the monitoring and evaluation of the policies created. The WHO has been conducting such report on food and nutrition reviews since the 1990s mainly through the analysis of questionnaires.
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3.4 Research Data
In this thesis, the documents intended to be used for research will be in the field of national policy documents and international policy framework documents dealing with food and food security/insecurity, as well as on gender and the roles played by African rural women. The focus will mainly be on Food Policies implemented in Kenya to see whether they have adequately addressed the issue of gender roles in food security at the national level. These three documents are the instruments used to frame out the required guidelines that the people of Kenya are empowered to receive their rights through, also what the Kenyan government is required to do for its people regarding food security and women empowerment.
These documents include:
The Kenyan Constitution is the supreme law of Kenya. It was conscripted on the 27th of August in 2010 bringing about a new dawn as the previous constitution was signed in 1963, which had been a little outdated and greatly needed updating. Over 67% of Kenyan voters approved the constitution in the 2010 referendum, indeed a historical moment to millions (Unknown, Kenyan Constitution, 2017). The new 2010 Constitution of Kenya, which establishes a devolved system of government called ‘County Government’, the new Constitution is being hailed as promising and progressive (LANDac, 2016, p. 1).
The Kenyan Food Security Bill of 2014 is a legislative framework passed to address food security in line with article 43(1)(c) of the Kenyan Constitution of 2010
The Kenyan National Food and Nutrition Security Policy is a policy developed by the Ministry of Agriculture to address food insecurity in the country.
On the international level, these documents include:
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are “The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – which range from halving extreme poverty rates to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS and providing universal primary education, all by the target date of 2015 – form a blueprint agreed to by all the world’s countries and all the world’s leading development institutions. They have galvanized unprecedented efforts to meet the needs of the world’s poorest. The UN is also working with governments, civil society and other partners to build on the momentum generated by the MDGs.” (UN, Millennium Goals, 2017).
29 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are ““The seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are our shared vision of humanity and a social contract between the world’s leaders and the people,” UN former Security General Ban Ki-moon said of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted unanimously by 193 Heads of State and other top leaders at a summit at UN Headquarters in New York in September.” (UN, Sustainable Development Goals kick off with start of new year , 2017).
Universal Declaration on Human Rights is a non-legally binding document in 1948 was adopted, the general agreement was that the rights which were to be enshrined in the Declaration were to be transformed into legally binding obligations through the negotiation of one or more treaties (OHCHR, 1966).
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) aims to
“…ensure the protection of economic, social and cultural rights including: the right to self- determination of all peoples (article 1); the right to non-discrimination based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status (article 2); the equal right of men and women to enjoy the rights in the ICESCR (article 3); the right to work (articles 6–7); the right to form and join trade unions (article 8);
the right to social security (article 9); protection and assistance to the family (article 10); the right to an adequate standard of living (article 11); the right to health (article 12); the right to education (articles 13–14); and the right to cultural freedoms (article 15).” (OHCHR, 1966).
The Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition/The Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security was adopted in November 2009 by the World Summit on Food Security in Rome, provides a powerful strategic underpinning for coordinated action by all stakeholders at global, regional and country level, while embracing the twin-track approach to fighting hunger.
The Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security helps global, regional and country level stakeholders to coordinating their actions and embracing the twin-tower approach of fighting hunger. The principles include:
“Principle 1: Invest in country-owned plans, aimed at channelling resources to well-designed and results-based programmes and partnerships.
30 Principle 2: Foster strategic coordination at national, regional and global level to improve governance, promote better allocation of resources, avoid duplication of efforts and identify response gaps.
Principle 3: Strive for a comprehensive twin-track approach to food security that consists of:
(a) direct action to immediately tackle hunger for the most vulnerable; and (b) medium- and long-term sustainable agricultural, food security, nutrition and rural development programmes CFS 2012/39/5 Add.1 11 to eliminate the root causes of hunger and poverty, including the progressive realization of the right to adequate food.
Principle 4: Ensure a strong role for the multilateral system by sustained improvements in efficiency, responsiveness, coordination and effectiveness of multilateral institutions.
Principle 5: Ensure sustained and substantial commitment by all partners to investment in agriculture and food security and nutrition, with the provision of necessary resources in a timely and reliable fashion, aimed at multi-year plans and programmes.” (CFS, 2016) The Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security (VGRTF) was Adopted by the 127th session
of the FAO Council, November 2004.
The objective of the Voluntary Guidelines is to provide practical guidance to States in their implementation of the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security. Its vision is to ““strive for a world free from hunger where countries implement the voluntary guidelines for the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security.” (FAO, Right to Food , 2017).
The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in The Context of National Food Security (VGGT) “…serves as a reference and to provide guidance to improve the governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests with the overarching goal of achieving food security for all and to support the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security.” (FAO, Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, 2012).
The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) was adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 34/180 of 18th December 1979 entry into force 3rd September 1981
31 (UN G. A., Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979).
The 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) recognizes that there is an urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles concerning equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings (UN G. A., Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, 1993).
These national Kenyan documents will be likened to the international policy documents to see whether the Kenyan food policies that regard rural women are up to par. This policy analysis through document analysis will question the extent to which Kenya has gone to empower the rural women to improve their household, local and national food security, reducing malnutrition and hunger within the country. These international and national documents being compared against each other assist in forming a clear picture to what extent have Kenyan food security policies fallen behind in the empowerment of rural women in the agricultural sector.
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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Research Question 1:
What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women?
The Kenyan Constitution of 2010
The new Kenyan Constitution of Kenya brought with it some mew reforms, among which are the stronger sense to uphold the Universal Human Rights. The whole chapter 4 is dedicated to the Bill of Rights, this is an integral part of the Kenyan democratic state and is the framework that guides social, economic and cultural policies. (Kenyan Constitution, 2010) in Chapter 4 Article 27 of the Kenyan Constitution states that:
(3) Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal opportunities in political, economic, cultural and social spheres. (4) The State shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language or birth. (5) A person shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against another person on any of the grounds specified or contemplated in clause (4) (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 23).
This section of the Kenyan Constitution originated from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which through this proves that the Kenyan government upholds and respects the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, along with all the other international policies. As will be seen with the NFSNP and the FSB, they will emulate this as they are policies that have trickled down from the Kenyan Constitution, this is articulated in the Chapter 4 Article 19(1), that states:
“1. The Bill of Rights is an integral part of Kenya's democratic state and is the framework for, economic and cultural policies.
2. The purpose of recognising and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms is to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the realisation of the potential of all human beings.
3. The rights and fundamental freedoms in the Bill of Rights:
a. belongs to each individual and are not granted by the State;
33 b. does not exclude other rights and fundamental freedoms not in the Bill of Rights, but recognised or conferred by law, except to the extent that they are inconsistent with this Chapter; and
c. is subject only to the limitations contemplated in this Constitution.” (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 19).
In the next few sections, the NFSNP and the FSB emulate the Kenyan Constitution to the letter as it is required to with all Kenyan policies. The Bill of Rights within the Kenyan Constitution also binds all laws, state organs and all persons its application. Chapter 20 Article 2 states that “Every person shall enjoy the rights and fundamental freedoms in the Bill of Rights to the greatest extent consistent with the nature of the right or fundamental freedom.” The NFSNP and the FSB aim to fully empower all persons to the greatest extent to their right to food. Kenya’s food policies should be improved so that all persons within Kenya can enjoy the right to food and adequate and sufficient food security to the greatest extent.
With regards to the implementation of the Bill of Rights, Chapter 4 Article 21, 3 and 4 states:
“(3) All State organs and all public officers have the duty to address the needs of vulnerable groups within society, including women, older members of society, persons with disabilities, children, youth, members of minority or marginalised communities, and members of particular ethnic, religious or cultural communities.
(4) The State shall enact and implement legislation to fulfil its international obligations in respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms.” (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 20).
Kenya is required to respect international treaties, among which are the MDGs, SDGs, Universal Declaration on Human Rights, ICESCR, The Global Framework for Food Security and Nutrition, VGRTF, VGGT, CEDAW, DEVAW and many others that are mentioned in this thesis.
With this glimpse through the Kenyan Constitution, the rights of Kenyans can be seen, and a better understanding of the documents content can be attained.
34 National Food Security and Nutrition Policy
The Kenyan Constitution has played a very vital role in its influence on the NFSNP, it stands as a framework and its sentiments are echoed throughout the NFSNP. As the NFSNP aims to achieve food and nutrition security in Kenya, the measures it encourages must be structured in a way that will sufficiently address gender related issues as well.
In the begin of the document, in the Executive Summary, it states that:
“The new Food and Nutrition Security Policy (FNSP) provides an overarching framework covering the multiple dimensions of food security and nutrition improvement. It has been purposefully developed to add value and create synergy to existing sectoral and other initiatives of government and partners. It recognizes the need for multi-public and private sector involvement, and that hunger eradication and nutrition improvement is a shared responsibility of all Kenyans. The policy and associated actions will remain dynamic to address contextual changes and changing conditions over time. This policy is framed in the context of basic human rights, child rights and women’s rights, including the universal
‘Right to Food’.” (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 7).
This clause shows how the intention of the Kenyan government through this NFSNP to uphold their promise to various international instruments it has signed. Kenya’s commitment to incorporate women and gender rights within their national policies is evident. Unlike previous national policies that did not specifically put emphasis on women’s right, this is a step in the right direction from an international perspective. Under their obligation to the United Nations as a member state, these standards are among many that are to be upheld.
This can be seen in the third MDG, which is to “promote gender equality and empower women.” (UN, 2000); as well as in the fifth SDG representing gender equality. In adding this clause to the executive summary, the Kenyan NFSNP has proved that the policy is in line with United Nation, ICESCR article 2; and with CEDAW. The NFSNP affirms this intent in article 1.5.7:
“The FNSP is framed in the context of the Kenyan Constitution, basic human rights, child rights and women’s rights, including the universal ‘Right to Food’. The Government of Kenya supports the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security. This includes not only sufficient intake of calories, but also the right to nutritious diets that guarantee health, growth and development at all stages of life and for all citizens. This includes in particular the specific needs of all Kenyans and in particular
