Food Studies in Social Sciences and Food Policy

“1. a. material consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, and fat used in the body of an organism to sustain growth, repair, and vital processes and to furnish energy; also: such food together with supplementary substances (such as minerals, vitamins, and condiments) b. inorganic substances absorbed by plants in gaseous form or in water solution 2. nutriment in solid form

3. something that nourishes, sustains, or supplies” (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

Food is a fundamental component for human existence and is crucial for our survival, health and well-being. (Commission) Food has been used by different communities to express their different cultures and their beliefs. From production to consumption, the various stages involved belong to different disciplines. Food studies being a new topic has gained momentum over the past few years. This increased popularity in the field is due to the growing global population and the constant need to adequately supply the demand for food.

“Food studies can be considered to constitute a new movement, not only as an academic discipline but also to change society.” (Nestle, 2010). Almerico describes food studies as not only as the study of food but is more concerned with food-related area of study. Previously food studies when mentioned would automatically mean gastronomy and culinary studies but nowadays it incorporates the production and consumption of food in different cultures and communities worldwide. Due to food studies being a new discipline, it is highly interdisciplinary according to (Haber, 2005), to solve the challenges faced by continuous population growth, there must be a unification of the different disciplinaries into one unit.

Different Disciplines Involved with Food

a. Producing food Agricultural Sciences

Rural Sociology b. Processing, preserving and packing Food Science

Technology c. Marketing and selling of food Business

d. Shopping for food Sociology

Consumer research

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e. Cooking Culinary studies

Gastronomy f. Division of labour in the kitchen Sociology

g. Serving the food Hospitality Management

h. Eating the food from digestion to excretion

Medical Field Public Health Waste Management (Wilk, 2012) Different Disciplines Involved with Food

Historical and contemporary society can be well understood through the study of food according to Haber (2005, p.8). Almerico (2014) agrees that through the study of food, researchers who apply a food studies mind-set delve deeper into the understanding of the everyday practices of food and eating habits in various cultures. As we know, food and its preparation and consumption are a representation of various cultures. Some communities and cultures going to the extent of proudly claiming some delicacies as their own. For example, the British with tea, the Indians with curry, the Japanese with sushi, the Italians with pasta, and so on. These communities, cultures and nations have found a sense of pride with movements spoken through multiple cultures (Nestle, 2010, p. 175).

One branch in food studies is feminine food studies which focuses on the role of women with food. This subsection also deals with the overlooked roles of women and the fundamental roles they play in the preparation of food. Haber (2005) notes that within work involved with food studies generally ignored the role of women in cooking. Allen (2007) posits that the main role of women is largely food related work such as planting but they have very little influence over the control of resources and the decision-making process in the food industry and food policy. All aspects of women’s role in food must be studied to better understand the dynamics of food studies. The answers to solving our current global food problems and the achievement of sustainability involves understanding women and food studies. Avakian and Haber’s book titled ‘From Betty Crocker to Feminist Studies:

Critical Perspectives on Women and Food enlightens on the gradual rise of food studies in the recent years since the 1970 up to date. The continual emergence of this fairly new studies has helped researchers understand the dynamic aspects of food and its related research, solving food related issues involves the researchers to look at how women in the past and present have been handling food and its preparation during times when it is plenty and in scarcity.

14 Within the vulnerabilities of the global food system, is where climate change, environmental issues and food security come in. The intertwining of climate change and food insecurity has only assisted in increased hunger and malnutrition. With the multiple sub-systems in the food system, each sub-system has its own rational thus creating a complex web of interdependencies (P. Jokinen, 2015, p.14). These are known as wicked problems that have no one single answer but is like a puzzle where multiple answers will lead to a solution. The first definition of wicked problems was by Rittel & Webber (1973) and they described it as problems that are difficult to have a scientific rational approach, due to lack of clearly detailed definition and stakeholder’s points of view in the development of and solving the problem (R. Grochowska, 2014, p. 824).

Jokinen et al. give the example biofuel production, land grabbing and food production. These three intertwine when there is an increase demand for biofuels, the prices of the biofuels rise simultaneously causing an increase in food commodities. This all results in the continued demand for land for both sectors of food and energy production. In these examples, it is clear to see that the issue of food insecurity is accelerated by this tug of war between these sectors.

Food policy was previously known as agricultural policy and dealt with increasing output to guarantee sufficient food supply, taxation of farmers and preserving the rights of land holders (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 30). Food Policy as defined by the Vancouver Food Policy Council is “any decision, program or project that is endorsed by a government agency, business, or organization which effects how food is produced, processed, distributed, purchased, protected and disposed. Food policy operates at the global, national, provincial, regional, local and institutional levels.” (Council, 2017). Another definition of food policy is a plan of action designed created by one or multiple persons to accomplish a specific task, with food policies, these are intended for food systems (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 29).

The governments use these policies related to food systems to control and regulate with the intention of ensuring sufficient and healthy food for their citizens. McMillan states that there are a complex range of variables when dealing with food policy such as age, gender, rural-urban divisions, production, distribution patterns, social class, food aid, social and cultural conflict, cultural biases, different types of market, consumer patterns, international food trade competition, individual national policies, health and well-being are some of the examples (D. McMillan, 1991, p.8). The dilemma of food security can be resolved through increased production of food, the liberalization of the global food system and the use of biotechnology. Both Jokinen et al and Grochowka argue that this is not the case however,

15 there needs to be an increased food production on the same or smaller amounts of land and that the approach must be sustainably, adequately and equitably. Food security as a goal in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU advocates the increase in agricultural production and productivity. Although the CAP mainly focuses on this rather than on the increased environmental effects that will be brought about by increased agricultural land and productivity. Jokinen et al further continues to explain that the real issue that will arise when sufficient food supply is achieved is the lack of equitable distribution of food and the ineffective use of food. A challenge arising by genetically modified food, commonly known as GM or GMO. A case study of the USA through the World Food Programme to Southern Africa states brings to light the fear of unknown side effects associated with GM foods.

Proceeding severe dry spells in the region, the USA donated 50% of the aid in form of GM food. This offer was rejected by Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe due to the maize being genetically modified. They feared health effects on their citizens, livestock and agricultural biodiversity as well as how the GM maize will affect their agricultural commodities for export (Zerbe, 2004, p. 599). Zimbabwe continued to reject the GM maize even after its fellow neighbours requesting that the maize be milled instead. Though they wanted their own team of efforts to research the GM maize, they were mocked by USA officials for this move. Although there being ample supply of maize in Kenya and Tanzania, this move by the USA was one in their own self interest, Zerbe concludes that this was a result of specific American policy objectives that advanced their goals of surplus disposal, market development and foreign policy considerations.

Therefore, the solution to starting is through policies that aim to understand these wicked problems. The basic juggle in todays food policy is the balance between environment, health and the society, will help in forming policies that are crosscutting to the issues. The role women play in food security must be looked at and their role is a fundamental point to understanding what we need to do to help achieve and maintain food security. The education of women in better methods and techniques to achieve food security is one of the main points our governmental institutions and agricultural NGOs must consider. If the role of women in food related would continue to be ignored and played down the result would be continued devastating to the research of food studies.

16 2.2 Food Security and Food Insecurity

The sister concepts of food insecurity and food security were formally launched at the first World Food Conference in 1974 (Carney M. A., 2015, p. 21). Food security as defined by the FAO exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Summit, 1996). The lack of these factors leads to food insecurity.

Food Security is measured by the absence or the low prevalence of hunger. Hunger is therefore defined as the uneasy and painful sensation caused by a lack of food (D. P. Keenan, 2001, p. 1). Self-sufficiency is when the country produces the food it needs or that which its population demands (Pinstrup-Anderson, 2008, p. 282). There are four pillars of food security as described by Nelleman (2009):

1. The Availability of Food: This is dependent on the food that a country produces or receives through trade. It can be increased through self-sufficiency and lowering the dependency of other regions. Availability can be increased through more investment in agricultural research and development and using mineral fertilizers.

2. The Stability of Food Supply: This is easily affected by fluctuations in price and conflicts. Temporary disruptions have long lasting effects.

3. Accessibility to Food: This is dependent on the physical access and affordability of the food. Importation can make accessibility to food easier and cheaper.

4. Utilization of Food: This is how food is used through consumption, processing, food storage, through nutrition, food safety and quality.

Food insecurity is when all people, at all times, lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Abraham Tadesse Tantu, 2015, p. 1). This occurs when the people are not able to have enough healthy food for their consumption, they either eat food that is not of good quality and in extreme cases they tend to go hungry for days. It may be caused by the unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution or inadequate use of food at the household level. Food insecurity, poor conditions of health and sanitation and inappropriate care and feeding practices are the major causes of poor nutritional status. Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal or transitory (The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015, 2015). According to Per Pinstrup-Anderson (2008) two types of food insecurity include:

17 Transitory food insecurity: describes a periodic food for example seasonal food insecurity.

Permanent food insecurity: a long-term lack of access to sufficient food.

With this understanding of the interrelations of food security and food insecurity, one sees that food insecurity can be curbed through enhancing and enabling food security. The literature on food security has risen since the 1970s, where food security was mostly a national and global food supply concern. In 1972-74 there was a world food crisis, also f.

ex. in 2007-09. In the 1980s, the focus shifted then to household and individual levels, as well as food security becoming an important organizing principle. This surge of interest was caused by: the African famine of 1984-85, a concern with deteriorating basic needs during structural adjustments and the fruits of an intellectual progression which stretched through the entitlement theory in the early 1980s (Smith, 1994, p. 6). Malthus (1998, p.62) states that any temporary boost in food production is capable of relieving food insecurity would cause a rise in the population to a point that humanity was once again reduced to a condition of food insecurity. There are four reasons why achieving food security is harder than in 1978 Malthus’ time:

1. The significant share on the world population today is malnourished.

2. The global population is increasing.

3. Climate change and other environmental changes threaten future food production.

The food system itself is a major contributor to climate change and other environmental harms.

2.3 How does food security affect rural women, in Kenya and in Africa as a