Some values were explicitly connected to the dimensions of adaptation in this study. Self-direction in Schwartz’s (1992) value theory correlated with the dimensions of extensive broadmindedness, inclusive flexibility, natural extrovert and adventurousness. The ideally adapted type also scored significantly higher on self-direction than the positively or ambiguously adapting types. It is logical to conclude that this value is particularly important in adaptation to a multicultural environment. Sagiv & Schwartz (1995) have written about the correlation between self-direction and out-group contact as follows:
“We expected a positive correlation between emphasizing self-direction values and readiness for out-group contact because such contact provides exposure to new and different ways of life and opportunities to learn about and explore them. Moreover, people who emphasize self-direction values are more likely to reject negative stereotypes or prejudices against out-groups because they prefer to make independent judgments based on their own experience.”
(Sagiv & Schwartz, 1995, 440.)
This definition fits well when describing adaptation to multicultural environment, whether one is discussing types or dimensions.
Universalism was also related to inclusive flexibility. Universalism values emphasize “understanding, accepting, and showing concern for the welfare of all human beings, even those whose ways of life differ from one’s own”
(Schwartz, 1992), and this was also shown by Sagiv and Schwartz (1995) to correlate with willingness to out-group contact. It is understandable that this value predicts adaptation to a multicultural environment. Regarding the evolving – inclusive flexibility dichotomy the significantly higher ranking with inclusive flexibility reflects well the juxtaposition between the two forms of
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flexibility. As mentioned earlier, evolving flexibility described hesitant and even reluctant flexible behaviour. This could indicate that those belonging to the evolving flexibility group acted in a flexible manner since it was required in the situation but had not internalized or accepted the reasons behind this behaviour. Based on conceptual deduction, had there been two opposite poles in the broadmindedness dimension, universalism might have been found there as well. But in my study the two categories of broadmindedness in the numerical data both describe broadmindedness, though exclusive broadmindedness described more of the perspective taking ability, while growing broadmindedness referred more closely to a willingness to be open as such. Universalism value fits well to both these poles of broadmindedness, when one compares the definition with the interview quotes.
Natural extroverts scored significantly lower on conformity than striving extroverts. Being a natural extrovert probably helps a person see beyond learned conventions, and instead of applying learned habits acting as the situation requires. The definition of conformity, “restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms” (Schwartz, 1992) does refer to behaviour that might not be the most successful mode in a foreign milieu, since the social expectations one has learned in the home country may not be applicable to other environments, and that is where the adaptability of one’s behaviour is needed. This is also in line with Sagiv and Schwartz’s (1995) arguments and results that willingness to out-group contact correlates negatively with conservation values. Contact to out-group members “places one in situation where familiar norms do not apply,” whereas conservation values (conformity, security, tradition) “emphasize the goal of preserving established arrangements” (ibid., 439).
11.3.1 VALUE CHANGE IN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
As can be recalled, Bardi & Goodwin (2011) presented a model of value change applicable to cross-cultural research.21 Both automatic and effortful value change processes could be retrieved from the respondents’ answers. The descriptions of learning the language and through this making new friends with different nationalities and learning their ways of seeing the world (automatic route) had an effect on individuals, which, as deduced from the texts, had also changed their values. An effortful value change could be seen where the respondents described the diversity of nationalities and how they have now realized that other people can see life from a totally different perspective, and how this has made them rethink their own lives, values, habits, and customs. For instance, diminution of conformity could be retrieved from quotes describing broadmindedness. There was a plethora of
21 See chapter 3.2.4 for a review.
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quotes where respondents explained how living abroad had made them realize that they used to be accustomed to living by certain rules, and that now they had started to rethink this conformity, as they had seen the variety abroad.
Bardi and Goodwins’ (2011) explanation how a new situation requires a change in behaviour, which again leads to value change, is clearly and substantially distinguishable in the interviews. Rohan (2000) has also explained value change in her article. She claimed that individuals’
experiences and personal attributes guide one to view what is the best way of living to one, which also reflects on value priorities. Furthermore, as life circumstances and personal attributes change, value priorities change with them (Rohan, 2000). I propose that in the long run living in a multicultural environment is prone to change individuals’ values so that enhancement of universalism and self-direction grow, and conformity and security diminish. I claim that particularly the multicultural environment is the triggering cause here. Seeing several different cultures and nationalities around on a daily bases increases an individual’s appreciation of differing ways of living and one’s broadmindedness in understanding people who are different from one’s own culture. At the same time one learns to see the world beyond one’s own habitual conventions. This process is also bound to enhance independence in thought and action. Hence the enhancement of universalism and self-direction, as well as a decline in conformity and security are all connected to each other in the adaptation process. This ranking is also congruent with the structural system of Schwartz’s value model (1992, see also Bardi et al., 2009), so that high and low priority values are on opposite sides of the values circle.
The expatriates had high priorities on higher order value types openness to change and transcendence, and low on conservation and self-enhancement. Looking at the value rank order in this study and keeping in mind that the respondents had lived abroad on average 6.5 years, the order is illuminating. Universalism was in the first rank and self-direction in second.
Conformity was two steps lower with Finnish expatriates than with Finnish people with academic education in Finland. Furthermore, security was in fifth rank with Finnish expatriates, whereas in general it is in second rank in Finnish samples.
Since this is not a longitudinal study, I have no data on the value rank order before moving abroad. Therefore, the proposal of value change is uniquely based on text analysis. In case these individuals’ value rank order had been somewhat akin before moving, as found in this study, that could have motivated them to move in the first place. This would be in line with Tartakovsky and Schwartz’s (2001) self-development motivation to emigrate, as well as Schwartz’s (2005) propositions how values can influence behaviour.
According to Schwartz (2005), high-priority values (e.g. self-direction) can guide behavior (in this case moving abroad) when the opportunity occurs to achieve the goals that one values highly. One can speculate, whether these individuals who decided to move abroad valued universalism and
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direction more and security and conformity less already before moving compared to those who stayed in their own country. That is possible, since they had made a decision to move abroad, but judging from the texts, living abroad and in a multicultural environment has strengthened this tendency.
Regarding those who have not adapted, and at least some of those who were ambiguously adapting, one could speculate that they may have incongruence between their value priorities and the situation they are in. In that case the lack of motivation could be the result of this. On the other hand, the lack of motivation to change and to adapt may be due to several other factors already discussed in this thesis. Due to the small sample size detailed comparisons of value priorities between the groups were not possible, and the answers can only be speculative. As can be recalled, in statistical analysis only the ideally adapted scored significantly higher than the positively adapting and ambiguously adapting in one value, namely self-direction.
In my hypotheses, universalism and higher order values of openness to change were expected to be more important and conformity less important for the expatriate sample than for the Finnish national sample (of similar education). These hypotheses were supported by quantitative analysis, especially for universalism and self-direction. Both conformity and security were found to be lower among the expatriates in the quantitative analysis. The qualitative analysis supported alike the enhancement of universalism and self-direction, and the diminution of conformity and security among expatriates.
11.3.2 WORK VALUES OF FINNISH EXPATRIATES
In this study work values were in the third rank. This is remarkably higher rank than, for example, in the Pyhtää research in 2007 (Helkama, 2012a), where the work values were placed 7th. Even though this is not directly relevant to adaptation to a multicultural environment, it is a detail of the subject group at hand that is worth noting. In the interviews several expatriates as well as working expatriate spouses brought up the long working hours and their indirect effect on adaptation. Work is obviously a highly ranked value within this subject group, and is has a twofold effect regarding adaptation. On the one hand, lack of free time was felt to cause problems in building social networks outside work. On the other hand, numerous quotes regarding change and positive adaptation were retrievable from the texts concerning relations at work. So, in conclusion, it would seem that the high ranking of work values is more illuminating in describing the subjects of the study as such, although it has some effect regarding adaptation.
Another detail concerning work values in this study is that work values were linked to universalism and benevolence. In former studies work values have been related to achievement, power, and security in student samples (Myyry & Helkama, 2001), or to conformity, security, and tradition (e.g.
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Helkama, 2012a). In the present study the work values were related to conformity and security as well, but the relation to universalism and benevolence has not been detected in other studies. One can only speculate if this is characteristic to the selected nature of the present sample, so that expatriates connect work values with higher order self-transcendence values.
However, this result could also be seen to support the idea that work values are, as Schwartz has argued, included in the basic ten values, and are not an independent value. My results, then, suggest that work values were in the service of universalism, which was the top value in the expatriate sample.
While the ten basic values in this study formed an integrated circular structure characteristic to Shwartz’s value theory, work values deviated from this structure as well as from other studies where work values have been included.