Theoretical framework for mobile lifelong learning

To conclude the literature review, this chapter introduces a conceptual framework for mobile²⁰ lifelong learning suggested by authors Nordin, Embi and Yusuf (2010). The framework is based on elements of lifelong learning and theories of learning and takes various factors into account. The author believes that it gives valuable hints on theoretical aspects to consider when developing digital learning offers for alumni.

20 Mobile learning is a specific form of digital learning and focuses on the integration of mobile computing devices for teaching and learning (Grant, 2019). Utilizing smartphones has made learners more independent of time, location and the changes in learning environments: Given a sufficient internet connection, learning opportunities that are offered by mobile technologies, principally enable learners to learn anytime, anywhere, and according to their needs (Nordin et al., 2010).

PICTURE 2. Framework for mobile learning design requirements for lifelong learning (Nordin et al., 2010: 136).

The picture above depicts the framework for mobile learning design requirements for lifelong learning as suggested by Nordin, Embi and Yusuf (2010). The framework comprises the four perspectives: (1) generic mobile environment issues (2) mobile learning contexts (3) learning experiences and (4) learning objectives which will be introduced briefly in the following.

Furthermore, the authors have included elements of the three learning theories behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism, in their framework²¹ (Nordin et al., 2010: 135).

Generic mobile environment issues

The generic mobile environment comprises aspects like the user dimension, mobility, the mobile interface design, media types, and support services.

Usually, there are two user types involved in the learning scenario, on which data should be collected: Core users or ‘the learners’ and secondary users, e.g.

the content provider, instructors or experts (Nordin et al., 2010; Parsons, Ryu and Cranshaw, 2007). Authors Liu, Salomaa, Huang and Ma (2008) emphasize

21 A constructivist approach means that learners can construct new knowledge with the information that they get from their mobile learning activities (Nordin et al., 2010: 135). At the same time, mobile applications can also be used for `drill and practice exercises`, which are characteristic for a behaviourist approach as they allow giving almost immediate feedback, which can have a motivating effect. Last but not least, the learning environment on a digital platform, allows learners to reflect and exchange on what they have learned. The cognition of questions, problems and difficulties as well as the exchange about them with others integrated into a cognitive theory of learning in a mobile LLL context (Nordin et al., 2010: 135).

that the understanding of the core users and their needs as well as understanding the factors that influence their learning is crucial to the design of mobile learning activities. To gain such an understanding of users, demographic data as well as data on the mobility and gadgets of users should be collected and analysed. For example, content providers should analyse which role mobility plays for the learners’ profiles and how learners use their devices, as this information can give important hints for the design of the mobile learning environment, like the appropriate interface, suitable media types and support services (Nordin et al., 2010). Mobile devices, for example, have specific characteristics like small screens, which require a different user interface design than notebooks (Nordin et al., 2010: 133-135; Preece, Rogers and Price, 2007).

Mobile learning contexts

The mobile learning context is another important perspective to consider. It refers to the scenario in which the learning takes place and which facilities (e.g.

service providers) are used (Liu et al., 2008: 186; Nordin et al., 2010: 136).

These aspects influence the types of learning activities that are constructed (Nordin et al., 2010: 134). The spatial-temporal dimension puts significance on planning schedules and digital events accordingly, which is especially relevant for providers like the Alumniportal Deutschland, with users distributed around the globe in different time zones (Parsons et al., 2007). For Nordin et al. (2010), a distinctive feature of mobile learning is the encouragement of collaborative activities. Collaborative learning which encourages communication and networking can have positive impacts on the learning as well as on learners’

social and teamwork skills (Nordin et al., 2010; Rawski, 2011). Collaboration can happen between students, students and teachers, or students and other sources. Furthermore, support services are important, as they provide assistance to users. Support services can for example be installed in the form of interactive group discussions, forums or blogs (Nordin et al., 2010: 137).

Learning objectives and learning experiences

Learning objectives and learning experiences are closely interconnected. For Michael Grant (2019), learning content and activities in a non-formal setting should be foremost based on the learning objectives, interests, and needs of the users. However, in practice learning offers will to some extent also reflect

the interests and themes of the providing organization. Nordin et al. (2010: 136) stress that all content should be attached to goals and objectives to provide sense of direction and enable feedback.

The learning experience is also closely connected to learning content. For Kollias (2007: 12), all content becomes learning content as soon as a learner interacts with it in a learning activity “with the purpose to think about, understand and create meaning out of them, to develop new knowledge and skills, to practice on them, to use them as a reference points for further developing his/her competencies.” Within the wider pedagogic framework of constructivist and socio-cultural theories of learning, learners are not passive recipients of knowledge and skills that are developed through exposure to certain teaching contents, but they have an active role in the co-creation of learning content (Kollias, 2007). Especially in a digital or mobile learning environment, where learning is not bound to any location or special hours, learners should be able to access learning content from any geolocation and at any time (West and Vosloo, 2013). Hence, providers should aim for open licensing of content and an open structure, as these allow learners to access materials flexibly and share them with their peers (West and Vosloo, 2013). This is also stressed by author Stephen Downes (2008), who sees learning as practising, sharing and reflecting in the form of open and commons based peer learning²². Generally, online communities and mobile learning formats often offer a lot of room for collaborative learning: they can encourage forms of peer-to-peer learning, like tutoring models, study groups, peer-assessment schemes, collaborative project work or mentoring and community activities (Downes, 2008).

The learning experience can be positively influenced by a good usability and an appealing design (Preece et al., 2007). Usability can be increased by reducing barriers for participation in digital learning offers, e.g. by creating a seamless registration process. Design also has a profound impact on the user experience, as many users are looking for a pleasing and engaging experience. Hence, providers should also consider aspects like enjoyment, user satisfaction,

22 Boud (1988) defines 'peer learning' as reciprocal learning activities which are mutually beneficial and involve sharing of experiences, knowledge and ideas between participants.

motivation, and challenge or competition when designing their learning offers.

(Preece et al., 2007; Prensky, 2001). Richard Caladine (2008) suggests enhancing learning experiences by offering rich multimedia content as well as opportunities for interactivity, collaboration and teamwork. This can for example be achieved by enabling face to face conversations, real-time communication and the fusion of learning activities with social networks. By designing a curriculum that reflects the use of dialog among learners as well as group interaction and participation, providers can also positively influence learners’

motivation, engagement and achievement over time (Kilis, 2013; Strengths and Weaknesses of Online Learning, n.d.).

Digital and mobile learning also bring along challenges. These challenges can be related to technological aspects, like an insufficient internet connection, limited access to devices and digital tools, or general limitations of mobile devices. Other challenges can be related to the digital skills of users as well as to their ability to manage self-directed e-learning, as mobile LLL always requires self-motivation and self-regulation by the learner (Nordin et al., 2010; Verheyen, 2020). For providers, it is sometimes challenging to tailor their learning offers to learners’ interests and needs. As mobile LLL mostly takes place in an informal and open environment, there is often only little information available on the learner profiles, including information on their former education as well as their skill and competence levels (Werquin, 2010: 8). In this context, providers can utilize data mining as well as methods of market and user research to collect and analyse necessary data on their core users (Kilis, 2013).