Structure of the dissertation

This dissertation is divided into two parts, Part I and Part II. Part I is an introductory section consisting of five chapters. Chapter 1 deals with research background, objective, scope, key concepts and dissertation structure. Chapter 2 discusses the theoretical framework. Chapter 3 describes the research methodology, including the research approach, research design and data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the results and summarises the findings. Chapter 5 includes the conclusions and discussion.

Part II includes five sub-studies the results and conclusions of this dissertation are based on the findings of these five sub-studies.

Figure 2 presents the structure of the dissertation, including the five chapter heads in Part I and the titles of the sub-studies making up Part II.

Figure 2: Structure of the dissertation

2 Theoretical Background

2.1

In scholarly discourse, social sustainability is considered a fundamental component of sustainable development and one that demands further elucidation, as its meaning remains unclear (Spangenberg and Omann, 2006; Davidson, 2009; Colantonio, 2011; Murphy, 2012, Littig and Griessler, 2005; Dempsey et al., 2011; Landorf, 2011; Mak and Peacock, 2011; Vifell and Soneryd, 2012). It is a multifaceted concept that has been studied through the lenses of disparate disciplines and theoretical perspectives (Colantonio, 2011;

Weingaertner and Moberg, 2014). During the last fifteen years, studies on social sustainability have focused mainly on urban studies, from both academic and policy perspectives (Ghahramanpouri et al., 2013).

Many definitions of social sustainability have emerged, but as of yet no all-encompassing definition exists in policy or practice (Ghahramanpouri et al., 2013). Sachs (1999: p.27) states that ‘social sustainability must rest on the basic values of equity and democracy, the latter meant as the effective appropriation of all human rights – political, civil, economic, social and cultural – by all people’. From a sociological standpoint, Littig and Griessler (2005: p. 72) state that ‘social sustainability is given, if work within a society and the related institutional reproductive capabilities are preserved over a long period of time and the normative claims of social justice, human dignity and participation are fulfilled’. Polese and Stren (2000: p. 15-16) state that the ‘social sustainability of a city is defined as development that is compatible with harmonious evolution of civil society, fostering an environment conducive to the compatible cohabitation of culturally and socially diverse groups and encouraging social integration, with improvements in the quality of life for all segments of the population’.

One important focus of definitions of social sustainability is future generations: that improvement of a society should allow current and future generations alike to use social resources in a healthy way. According to the Western Australia Council of Social Services, ‘Social sustainability occurs when the formal and informal processes, systems, structures, and relationships actively support the capacity of current and future generations to create healthy and livable communities’ (McKenzie, 2004: p.18). Chiu (2003) expands on the notion of well-being of generations taken from Brundtland’s definition of sustainable development, describing social sustainability as the maintenance and improvement of the well-being of current and future generations. Castillo, Price, Moobela and Mathur (2007) suggest that social sustainability refers to ensuring the well-being of current and future generations by recognizing each individual’s right to belong to and participate as a valued member of his or her community.

Some authors suggest attributes of social sustainability instead of providing a definition.

For instance, Magis and Shinn (2009: p.16) define four central constituent parts of social sustainability: human well-being, equity, democratic government, and democratic civil

society. Human well-being ensures the protection of basic needs; equity ensures mechanisms to guarantee equitable sharing of society’s benefits and costs; democratic government ensures that governance is oriented to the people; and a democratic society empowers people to build a democratic government. Bramley and Power (2009) suggest that a community’s social equity and sustainability are two recognizable overarching concepts at the core of the notion of social sustainability. Larsen (2009: p.78) states that

‘Social sustainability must a) build inclusion at the level of individuals, groups and society; b) provide for basic human dignity, which includes at least basic human sustenance, freedom from tyranny, freedom of association, and basic human liberty; c) provide a means for people to influence their governance and d) create the capacity for learning at the level of individuals, groups, collectives, governments, corporations and society’. Vallance et al. (2011: p.342) present a threefold schema for social sustainability that consists of a) development sustainability, which addresses basic needs, social capital and justice; b) bridge sustainability, which concerns changes in behaviour so as to achieve environmental goals; and c) maintenance sustainability, which refers to preservation of socio-cultural characteristics in the face of change, and the ways in which individuals accept or resist those changes. According to McKenzie (2004: p.19), a socially sustainable community is equitable, diverse, connected, and democratic and provides a good quality of life. In a more recent study, Missimer, Robert and Broman (2016) state that, in a socially sustainable society, people are not subject to structural obstacles to health, influence, competence, impartiality and meaning-making.

Social sustainability is also viewed as a process. According to McKenzie (2004: p.12), social sustainability is a life-enhancing condition and process within communities, which can achieve that condition through several factors like equity of access to key services, diversity, political participation at the local level, transmitting awareness of social sustainability from one generation to the next, mechanisms of community to fulfil its own needs, and so on. ‘Social sustainability concerns how individuals, communities and societies live with each other and set out to achieve the objectives of development models they have chosen for themselves, also taking into account the physical boundaries of their places and planet Earth as a whole’ (Colantonio and Dixon, 2011: p. 4). An approach adopted by Thomsen and King (2009) that is relevant in the context of this study defines social sustainability as social institutions that work towards economic and environmental goals as well as processes that generate social health and well-being.