While research renders mostly positive reviews of sport and PYD however, potential pitfalls call for cautious measures to be taken to avoid any negative occurrences. Youth have resilient bodies, but they are not immune to physical injury, and the probability for physical injury correlates with activity level. Thus, the more physically active a child is, the more likely they are to get physically injured. Sport injuries however, are not just limited to being physically orientated outcomes. Rather, injuries may surface in various ways afflicting their physical, psycho-social, and emotional states (Budgett et al., 2000).
2.2.1 Negative Physical Development
From a global perspective, as the growth of sport has increased youth sport organizations are placing a higher value on winning. From the physical training and development standpoint, we have witnessed an increased amount of training routines which have caused physical breakdowns through overtraining (Hollander et al., 1995). Routine overtraining precipitates a negative succession of occurrences in the body that eventually lead to overload. Unpleasant sensations range from muscle fatigue, joint tenderness, body weight loss, changes in hormonal levels (i.e. blood concentrations of testosterone and cortisol), to elevated resting heart rates (Budgett et al., 2000). Therefore, proper rest and recovery should not be neglected.
Astoundingly, today there is remarkable concern over the way adolescent teens, specifically girls, are influenced by media driven outlets which promote a singular vision or image of beauty (Lagowska & Jeszka, 2011). Female athletes are more susceptible to developing eating disorders relative to their more sedentary peers. This manifests through excessive dieting to promote leanness, physical appearance, and body image of figure skaters, cheerleaders, and gymnasts (Reel, 2013). In addition, female ballet dancers are at greater risk to develop eating disorders relative to their non-dancing peers (Anshel, 2004). Within the United States, both male and female adolescent wrestlers practiced routine ‘weight cutting’ on a weekly basis during their respective seasons. As this rapid weight loss occurs, as much as four to five pounds
are lost each week from athletes who are generally below the recommended standard of body fat (Case et al., 2016).
2.2.2 Negative Psycho-Social and Emotional Development
As previously mentioned, the increased importance placed on winning today has compounded stress in other areas which adversely affect youth’s mental states. Over the last few decades, research displays striking evidence of a global rise in depression and suicide rates (Rutz &
Wasserman, 2004; Stokes et al., 2016). This demands our attention, and necessitates us to provide support for athletes from psychological and emotional perspectives. Undue stress inhibits athletes from performing not only at their optimal levels, but also can cause detrimental and irreversible harm. In best case scenarios, athletes will dropout. Therefore, proactive discussion is warranted.
Moreover, precursors to dropping out of sport are highlighted after briefly mentioning the emotional response elicited, and then some adverse social outcomes subsequently follow. This is to ensure coaches have an understanding and can be proactive at preventing negative pitfalls.
Lee and Ashforth (1993) argue that as sport burnout happens the psychological response causes emotional exhaustion, whereby depersonalization occurs with decreased personal satisfaction with one’s work. When this becomes the norm, it is detrimental for an athlete’s self-belief.
Feelings of self-worth and self-perceived competence deteriorate, causing one to lose enjoyment. They fall victim to psychological withdrawal, and then dropout (Raedeke, 1997).
Precursors to burnout remain varied across the literature. Coakley (1992) suggests that adolescent athletes experience burnout in connection with two things. First, when they feel they are missing important life opportunities at the expense of their sport involvement. Second, when they feel a lack of autonomy to control their own development. Further research showed a distinction between burnout and dropout. Schmidt and Stein (1991) found that burnout occurs when athletes perceive their alternatives to be less attractive than their current sport. This contrasted with sport dropout athletes, who perceived their alternatives equally compelling, or even more attractive than their current one.
In addition, adverse social development in the form of aggression, drug use, and sexual promiscuity is seen within the youth sport context. Unfortunately, this is found to reoccur as delinquent social behaviors become learned and accepted through self-perpetuating behaviors (Bredemeier et al., 1987). Defined as the interpersonal behavior intended to cause any physical
or mental distress (e.g. Gencheva, 2015) — aggression — has even become legitimatized when such acts as fist fighting occur routinely within the youth sport setting (e.g. Bredemeier et al., 1987).
In conclusion, while this chapter focused specifically on the effects that sport has on youth, creating sporting environments with these positive pillars in mind became the basic premise of this entire paper. Therefore, youth acquiring these beneficial assets cannot be overstated. Thus, to bring out the very best in youth, coaches and sport planners need to be aware of these topics.
In addition, this knowledge became the foundation on which the Transformer Research Project was built. By drawing scientific information related to the youth sport environment on a very general level, an additional purpose was to build credibility from the reader’s perspective that the writer was competent to speak about such matters. Next, the direction of the discussion shifts towards the roles that youth sport organizations may play to steer on PYD and also induce player and volunteer coaching engagement.
3 ROLES OF YOUTH SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
You build a house brick-by-brick, from the ground up. There is no substitute for a strong foundation. Anything else leads to a weak frame, and it’s sure to collapse when the weather
gets heavy”
Anonymous
This chapter aims to elaborate on effective ways youth sport organizations can focus their programs to meet the challenges they face today. First, curbing player dropout through exploring ways to create sporting environments conducive to keeping kids engaged is discussed. Then the focus changes to the volunteer sport perspective, starting from a European Union (EU) reference, and then narrowing the scope to explore the Finnish situation. In order to make the context become ‘real’ a brief history is drawn which helps to convey how sport and volunteering has developed throughout the past century in Finland. Finally, the discussion identifies the target for this study — the Finnish volunteer youth football coach — and seeks to build a better conceptualization of the various barriers and constraints affecting volunteer engagement while postulating numerous ways to improve the situation. Thus, all this information helped ‘set the stage’, form the perimeters, and narrow the focus for the Transformer Workshop.
It is important to remember this fact: youth sport organizations would not exist if it was not for their youth staying involved in the program, or the efforts that volunteer coaches make year-after-year. Thus, youth sport organizations must care deeply about retaining their athletes and staff. The programs they install play a significant role in shaping their athletes’ experiences, lives, and developmental outcomes (reminiscent of chapter 2). Unquestionably, this also extends to their volunteer coaches — because — their roles have a great influence on youth athletes as well. Therefore, youth sport organizations need to understand how to keep kids, and volunteer coaches annually retained in the program. Exploring ways to tap internal and external motivators would be a good place to begin, but curbing the player dropout is discussed first.