As discussed above, age and the cognitive abilities as well as cognitive development in relation to age and learning are one of the key factors in young children’s EFL (English as a foreign language) learning. As age and the stage of cognitive ability are linked to one another, the content of teaching EFL should match this setting. Success in learning EFL and in teaching it to young learners depends on various factors. Early starting age, adequate amount of exposure, teachers’ training and ongoing support for mastering the professionalism in the target language, language pedagogy, teaching strategies and other pedagogical skills, appropriate materials provided and the national authorities’ support were mentioned as the most crucial provisions for successful language learning (Edelenbos et al 2006: 54).
The above mentioned factors were supported by Lopriore and Krikhaar (2011: 78) as they recognized the importance of them in the ELLiE report and also highlighted the status of EFL in the curriculum and within schools. This indicates that when a foreign language is regarded as important and as something that is worth investing in, the materials provided are usually up to date and support learning, the school environment is supportive towards learning languages and international projects and exchanges are being organized as well as the teachers themselves
thrive in their job. Thus, learners themselves regard languages as an important skill to master as well.
Saunders-Semonsky and Spielberger (2004) reported on a successful model for early language learning. They initiated and maintained a program for foreign language learning in Georgia Elementary School as they wanted to provide a success-story for policy-makers, principals and teachers within the field of foreign language teaching. The program eventually extended to 15 other schools as well, and by the time of the publication, over 14, 000 pupils had attended the program. The key factors that led to the success of this program were an extensive use of the target language (instructions offered in a target language every day, minimum of 30 minutes per day), frequent assessment, a variety of professionals taking part in the program (university professors training teachers and assuring better performance, The Department of Education and local administrators funding and providing adequate equipment and materials for a successful teaching model) and an active contact with learners’ parents (including them in the learning process whenever possible). This supports the previous requirements for sufficient exposure and the importance of the status of a foreign language: without a status as an important field of education, this program and thus the foreign language learning that they promoted would not have been funded nor presented as required.
As mentioned above, young learners process the given information implicitly due to their undeveloped cognitive skills. Therefore, teachers make use of implicit learning strategies when teaching young learners. Implicit learning is characterised as a product of the language use in situational contexts, meaning that learners are being provided with opportunities to engage with the language in question. It happens incidentally through activities, without being fully aware of it (Temple 2005). Usually the emphasis is on the communicative function of a language.
Based on this characterization, EFL for young learners should be taught through active learning strategies, such as playing, singing and acting, and the amount of exposure needs to be adequate as well.
Jaekel et al (2017: 7) recognize the requirements for good ELL outcome mentioned above, such as amount of exposure and adequate teacher training, and they also draw attention to the communication between teachers and the fitting methodology for primary school. This endorses the use of communicative, active learning strategies in ELL classrooms. If a teacher fails to provide age-appropriate methodology and the required assistance and support that is essential
for the child’s development, the child’s full potential cannot be reached (Enever 2015: 23).
Moreover, Djigunovic and Lopriore (2011: 48) underline the role of learning environment and the feeling in the FL classroom - making learners feel comfortable and learning feel like fun has a strong positive effect on the ELL outcome.
The main goal of ELL should be thought as a long-term one, resulting in sustaining a high level of motivation as Jaekel et al (2017: 12) argue. In a more short-term scale, they suggest that this can be achieved through concentrating merely on a successful transition from primary to secondary level and there onwards. At an early stage the main focus lies on arising children’s interest and excitement towards the target language and in building a base for future language learning. As mentioned in section 2.1, children tend to begin learning languages with an open, positive attitude, and maintaining that sense of excitement should be, and usually is, one of the main focuses of ELL.
The effect of the pupils’ attitudes was tested and confirmed in the ELLiE study, as the researchers found a clear relation between children’s attitudes and comprehension levels (2011:
52). The more positive attitude children had towards language learning, the better their comprehension was towards the end of the study. Moreover, as Jaekel et al (2017: 11) state, taking into account children’s cognitive levels, listening and speaking exercises should have the main focus in ELL, and literacy skills (i.e. writing and reading) are introduced gradually, targeting word recognition. Edelenbos et al (2006: 129) support this view and underline the importance of raising awareness and thus motivating children in language learning. Creating a positive approach towards language learning is, according to them (2006: 134), the most important pedagogical principle in ELL.
In order to create a positive atmosphere in the classroom and to maintain children’s motivation, Enever (2015: 24) puts strong focus on the importance of balancing between the enjoyment and the cognitive engagement within a task. Such balance is important to keep in mind when designing teaching materials and methodology for young language learners. In the ELLiE study (2011) this balance and its changing nature were noted as the children’s preferences for language learning activities were measured. As children grew older and as their cognitive abilities developed, their preferences shifted from merely games, singing and playing to writing and reading activities, i.e. towards more focused work. However, teaching methods should remain age-appropriate, and children’s individual differences need to be taken into account, as
Djigunovic and Lopriore (2011: 59) note. Similarly, Edelenbos et al (2006: 138) emphasize the need for teaching young children in a way that provides them with an opportunity to learn with all their senses. This allows different types of children, i.e. different types of learners, to engage in the activities with what suits their own learning style best, and thus decreases the negative effects of individual differences. Age appropriate language learning instructions and practices, multisensory learning and taking children’s physical tendency into account were noted to have the strongest implications for successful classroom practices (Edelenbos et al 2006: 142).