Equivalence

Taking into account the threats to validity in cross-cultural studies, the author took several measures to assure functional, conceptual, procedural, semiotic and sample equivalence.

It has been recognized by scholars (Erlandson et al. 1993; Kvale 1994; Yaprak 2008; Steenkamp & Baumgartner 1998) that insider informants should be involved in the research process for the purpose of validation. Therefore, as recommended (Berry 1990; Cheung et al. 1992; Schaffer & Riordan 2003), the

researcher was first familiarized with all of the cultures under study – acquired emic knowledge (by being a native of Poland and living and working in Finland, and through a ten-weeks-long research visit to the US) to avoid the cultural bias and to identify the differences affecting the study. Moreover, cultural insiders were consulted throughout the research design, data collection and analysis processes, which aimed at decreasing or eliminating the method and construct bias. Therefore, as recommended by Sinkovics, Penz, and Ghauri (2008) already at the problem-defining stage, it was assessed that the examined phenomenon and constructs serve the same role in those two cultural contexts.

At the data collection stage, data was collected in the same way in each of the studied countries. For procedural equivalence, as suggested by Yu, Kweon, and Jacobs (1993) and Sekaran and Martin (1982), data was collected in all countries within a reasonable time period – a few months. Furthermore, similar rapport with the respondents was established across all countries. Instruction formats and the procedure of executing the studies were also similar (Schaffer & Riordan 2003). At the data preparation stage, it was ensured that the collected responses were handled in the same way. Moreover, the use of coders and a standardized coding sheet (see the chapter on data coding and analysis for more details) assures the systematic and standardized coding across all samples and coherent code-sets.

The possibility of construct bias has been recognized, especially with the instruments developed in one cultural setting, and examined across diverse cross-cultural samples due to varying cultural assumptions between the researcher and respondents (Douglas & Nijssen 2003; Andersen & Skaates 2004;

Adler 1983), which “can occur when there is an incomplete overlap of definitions of the construct across cultures” (Sinkovics et al. 2008: 693). Furthermore, the issues of the conceptual and equivalence were considered when planning the study. To confirm that the concepts of the study activate the same conceptual frames of reference across different samples (Riordan & Vandenberg 1994; Hult et al. 2008), and are equally relevant in all considered clusters and countries constituting the samples (Douglas & Nijssen 2003), the functional equivalence (Craig & Douglas 2000) was verified by examining if social media has the same function across different samples. Thus, the understanding of the main concepts was verified in the pilot study, including the respondents from the three studied countries.

Table 14.Threats to validity and solutions Threat to validityRecommendations Solutions applied Construct bias ”Incomplete overlap of definitions of the construct across cultures”. Sinkovics et al. (2008: 693) Pre-testing the definitions of concepts. Assuring functional and conceptual equivalence. Building on established theories. Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen (1993); Yaprak (2008)

−The researcher originates from one of the studied countries, and has spent a considerable amount of time working and/or studying in other two countries. −Insider informants from each of the countries under study are involved in the research process for the purpose of validation. −Examining that the constructs serve the same role across cultural contexts under study. −Parallel translation of the instruments (for the study conducted in Poland). Lack of procedural equivalence Schaffer & Riordan (2003)

Consistent data collection and instrument formats, instruction formats, and distribution procedures across all samples. Yu et al. (1993); Skeran & Martin (1982); Schaffer & Riordan (2003); Andersen & Skaates (2004)

−Similar rapport with the respondents is established across all countries. −Instruction formats and the procedure of executing the study is similar across all countries. −The data is collected in all the studied countries over the period of a few months. −The data is handled in the same way and systematic and standardized coding is assured across all sample with the use of trained coders. Item bias Inadequate item translations that evoke different associations Vijver & Poortinga (1997)

Semiotic equivalence The translations of each of the constructs are consistent and convey the same meaning across cultures. Craig & Douglas (2000); Douglas & Nijssen (2003); Schaffer & Riordan (2003); Sinkovics et al. (2008)

−The parallel translation is applied (in the case of the study in Poland) −Perspectives of the insiders and outsiders of each culture are considered and discussed. −The instrument is tested on a diverse cross-cultural sample to test its consistency across cultures (see pilot study and personal narratives, and interviews). Threat to validityRecommendations Solutions applied The need for isolating the causal role of culture Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez (2000) Van de Vijver & Leung (1997) Singh et al. (2006)

Sample equivalence Minimizing sample differences across studied countries other than the dimensions under study. Aiming for comparable samples and not necessarily generalizable ones.

−Students were chosen as they represent similar age groups, education levels, experience with social media, as well as the familiarity with the research procedure. −They manifest similar Internet proficiency and frequency of social media use. Priming Priming can be used to motivate recipients of information to perceive the phenomenon through ‘contact lenses’ Hong et al. (2000); Kraus & Chiu (1998)

−The study is conducted in participant’s home country. −The instrument is translated into the native language of the respondents (Poland only). −Respondents report on the events that occur in their natural setting – use social media from their own devices, use social media in their native language. Lack of Conceptual and Functional equivalence Craig & Douglas (2000) Riordan & Vandenberg (1994) Hult et al. (2008)

Assuring that the concepts of the study and survey items activate the same conceptual frames of reference across different samples and are equally relevant in all considered clusters. Douglas & Nijssen (2003)

−Personal narratives and in-depth interviews were used in order to verify whether social media has the same function across different samples. −The researcher has spent considerable time in all studied countries. Cultural bias Ethnocentric cross- cultural comparisons Western perspectives. Sinkovics et al. (2008)

Combining the emic and etic approach. Berry (1990); Cheung et al. (1992); Schaffer & Riordan (2003); Triandis (1992); Berry (1989)

−The researcher acquires the emic knowledge on both cultures by being a native of one and living/working in the other. −It is acknowledged that only where there are observed commonalities can cross-cultural comparisons be made. −Triandis procedure (1992) −Berry’s (1989) imposed etics-emics-derived etics operationalization steps are applied.

Threat to validityRecommendations Solutions applied The need for isolating the causal role of culture Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez (2000) Van de Vijver & Leung (1997) Singh et al. (2006) Sample equivalence Minimizing sample differences across studied countries other than the dimensions under study. Aiming for comparable samples and not necessarily generalizable ones.

−Students were chosen as they represent similar age groups, education levels, experience with social media, as well as the familiarity with the research procedure. −They manifest similar Internet proficiency and frequency of social media use. Priming Priming can be used to motivate recipients of information to perceive the phenomenon through ‘contact lenses’ Hong et al. (2000); Kraus & Chiu (1998)

−The study is conducted in participant’s home country. −The instrument is translated into the native language of the respondents (Poland only). −Respondents report on the events that occur in their natural setting – use social media from their own devices, use social media in their native language. Lack of Conceptual and Functional equivalence Craig & Douglas (2000) Riordan & Vandenberg (1994) Hult et al. (2008)

Assuring that the concepts of the study and survey items activate the same conceptual frames of reference across different samples and are equally relevant in all considered clusters. Douglas & Nijssen (2003)

−Personal narratives and in-depth interviews were used in order to verify whether social media has the same function across different samples. −The researcher has spent considerable time in all studied countries. Cultural bias Ethnocentric cross- cultural comparisons Western perspectives. Sinkovics et al. (2008)

Combining the emic and etic approach. Berry (1990); Cheung et al. (1992); Schaffer & Riordan (2003); Triandis (1992); Berry (1989)

−The researcher acquires the emic knowledge on both cultures by being a native of one and living/working in the other. −It is acknowledged that only where there are observed commonalities can cross-cultural comparisons be made. −Triandis procedure (1992) −Berry’s (1989) imposed etics-emics-derived etics operationalization steps are applied.