Cultural values and practices

There are two research streams regarding the linkeage between cultural values and practices. The main research stream of studies on culture describes it as a multilayered phenomenon. According to the onion model (Trompenaars &

Hampden-Turner 1997), every culture consists of several layers. The outer layer is represented by behaviors and artifacts, and it is the only layer that is visible to an outsider. The middle layer consists of values, assumptions, norms and attitudes which form the lenses through which an individual perceives the world.

They can be defined as “an enduring belief that one mode of conduct or end-state of existence is preferable to an opposing mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach 1973: 5). They can be also referred to as “implicitly or explicitly shared ideas about what is good, right and desirable in a society”

(Terlutter et al. 2012: 90). Cultural values determine the perception of reality, the predispositions, attitudes towards time, rules and work, and thus impact the behavior of the members of a society (Markus & Kitayama 1991). They determine whether certain behaviors are considered as righteous and desirable or not, thus determining how people adapt to their environment and interact with other

people. They can constitute both written and unwritten rules, which include cultural ideologies and prohibitions, or prescriptions on how to behave. They include the assumptions and beliefs regarding time, space, relationships with other people and environment, nature of human beings, truth and reality, life, death, the source of life, or the canons of beauty. Basic assumptions and beliefs are at the core of the onion model and constitute its most inner part. The cultural onion metaphor corresponds with the Iceberg model of culture (Hall 1976) with an invisible layer of cultural values, and a visible level of behaviors and artefacts.

According to this traditional approach to culture, values drive practices (Hofstede 2001).

However, a second research stream builds on the notion that values do not necessary drive practices. Cultural practices can be defined as “common behaviors, institutional practices, proscriptions, and prescriptions of a given culture” (Quigley et al. 2012: 67). While values explain what the respondent feels

‘should be’, practices refer to what she or he feels ‘is’. As acknowledged by Hofstede himself “the distinction between the two is present not only in the conception of the researchers but also in the minds of the respondents” (Hofstede et al. 1990: 294). This understanding of values and practices corresponds with De Mooij’s (2010) classification of desirable (social norms) and desired (actual choices) values. “The desirable refers to the general norms of a society and is worded in terms of right or wrong in absolute terms. The desired is what we want, what we consider important for ourselves. It is what the majority in a country actually do (...) The desired relates to choice, to what is important and preferred; it relates to the “me” and the “you”. The desirable relates to what is approved or disapproved, to what is good or right, to what one ought to do and what one should agree with; it refers to people in general.” (De Mooij 2013a:

55,56).

It should be noted that from this point of view, cultural values and practices can be contradictory (House et al. 2004; Fischer 2006; De Mooij 2013b; Sun et al.

2014), which is referred to as a value paradox. Therefore, since cultural values constitute only one facet of culture, the culture itself should not be equated to cultural values (Taras & Steel 2009) because “other aspects of culture may predict outcomes differently than, or explain unique variance beyond, value-based measures” (Taras, Kirkman, & Steel 2010: 432). This approach corresponds with the concept developed by Schein (2004) that artifacts and values are two different levels of culture – the society values reflect the individuals’ view of what should be, in contrast to what is.

Moreover, cultural practices change faster than cultural values. As results of previous studies indicate, children between the ages of 9 and 11 are already fully acculturated (Ji 2008; Minoura 1992; Senzaki & Masuda 2011). Thus, the culture to which one is exposed to and socialized with early in life has a considerable impact on one’s cognitive style (Masuda, Wang, Ito, & Senzaki 2012). Other researchers talk about a 10-to-12-year period when a child unconsciously processes and assimilates the knowledge and information about the environment he or she happens to be in, including language, rituals and basic values. After this receptive time, one goes on to explore the world through more conscious learning, thus predominantly absorbing new societal practices (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov 2010). Figure 4 presents the process of learning of values and practices at different ages.

As recognized by Nakata (2003), even though cultural values are relatively stable, they constantly evolve and are reconstructed by individuals based on changes occurring globally and in their societies. Several other studies also confirm that culture changes much faster than assumed so far (Rokeach & Ball-Rokeach 1989;

Olivas-Lujän, Harzing, & McCoy 2004; Ralston et al. 2006). De Mooij and Hofstede (2002; 2010) argue that cultural values and practices should be considered separately, suggesting that while values, as acquired relatively early in life, endure throughout one’s life, practices that are required later can be altered (Hofstede 1991). Also, from this perspective, differentiating between cultural values and practices is crucial. While cultural values remain relatively stable, the outer layers of the cultural onion, including cultural practices, might be transforming relatively fast, with new practices being learnt throughout one’s lifetime (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov 2010: 19). “In some respects, young Turks differ from old Turks, just as young Americans differ from old Americans.

In the “onion model”, such differences mostly involve the relatively superficial spheres of symbols and heroes, of fashion and consumption. In the sphere of values – that is, fundamental feelings about life and about other people – young Turks differ from young Americans just as much as old Turks differ from old Americans. There is no evidence that the values of present-day generations from different countries are converging” (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov 2010: 9).

Figure 4. The Learning of Values and Practices (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov 2010, Figure 1.3.: 10).

Most of the House et al. (2004) cultural dimensions were shown to have negative correlations between cultural values and practices. Those are: institutional collectivism, power distance, performance orientation, future orientation, humane orientation, assertiveness and uncertainty avoidance. The only dimension exhibiting positive correlation was gender egalitarianism, and for in-group collectivism there was no significant relationship (House et al. 2010). “The question whether values or practices may be more appropriate for advertising (or other marketing purposes) is essential, given that both values and practices may be contradictory” (Terlutter, Diehl, & Mueller 2012: 91). Thus, House, Quigley, and de Luque (2010: 130) pose a question: “Given that advertising often appeals to consumer’s aspirations, is it more important to consider the practices or values associated with societal culture dimensions in advertising communication? How these two aspects of cultural dimensions influence the perceptions of consumers towards advertising”?

As the behaviors of a society are sometimes not consistent with the core values of that society, the clear distinction between these two levels of culture is a major strength of the GLOBE framework (Diehl, Terlutter, & Mueller 2008). This is also evident in the House et al. (2004) definition of culture, which takes into account both the behavioral practices, and the perception of actions (Smith et al. 2002).

In this dissertation, like in the GLOBE research, culture is considered from a more holistic perspective, i.e. as consisting of both values and practices.