Branding

The final component of this section is branding. The brand can be considered as an extension of the product as the brand develops around the product and provides the canvas on which the brand is painted onto. Hankinson and Cowking (cited in Blois, 2000) define a brand as a product or service made distinctive by its positioning relative to the competition and by its personality in the context of the target market, indicating that differentiation of the product from competitors is central. Meanwhile according to Appelbaum-Halliburton, a brand is an economic shortcut, means of communication between consumers and market, while surveys show that branded markets/products make greater profits (cited in Zhenyi Li, 2001). In addition to this, De Chernatony describes brands as being one of 3 types of assets that provide sources of earning, the others being tangible assets and intangible assets. They blend functional, performance values with

emotional values. A successful brand is considered by De Chernatony and McDonald (2003) to be an identifiable product, service, person or place, augmented in such a way that the buyer or user perceives relevant, unique, sustainable added values, which match their needs most closely. Brands therefore enhance and frame the economic value of a product, while also, a strong brand can help to build corporate image making it easier to launch new brands and to gain acceptance by distributors and consumers (Blois, 2000).

Another issue related to the strength of the brand is nationality. Usunier (2005) has noted that most national brands are related to a specific national linguistic context, and that in Europe around 99% of all brands are still national, if not purely local in their appeal, and have certain features that identify them as national brands, which are discussed further below. The brand also has functional aspects to it apart from aspects of identification.

Blois (2000) identifies the value of brands and brand names in their own right, and not based on how successful they are economically. He states that the brand name makes it easier for the seller to process orders and track down problems, while also the brand name and trademark provide legal protection of unique product features, which

competitors would otherwise like to copy. Other benefits it bestows on the seller include giving the seller opportunity to attract a loyal and profitable set of customers, who will associate the brand with high performance or certain benefits, as well as giving sellers some protection from competition and greater control in planning their marketing programmes. It also helps the seller to segment the markets they are selling to, so that they can aim their product at specific market subgroups seeking certain benefits from using a product. De Chernatony (2001) describes the above aspects as being derived from the input perspective of the brand, whereby the brand is a logo, a legal instrument, a company, shorthand, a risk reducer, positions the product, has a personality, a cluster of values, a vision, adds value, and has an identity. While from the output perspective, the brand has an image, a relationship with the public and is an evolving entity. (De

Chernatony, 2001:11) uses Davidson’s model of the branding iceberg to provide a complete picture of the brand. The iceberg represents the brand firstly because there are the visible aspects of the brand (the logo and the name) and then there are aspects underneath the surface, which account for the main body of the brand (the values, intellect and culture). Although the consumer only sees the logo and the name of the

brand, it is the underlying aspects that trigger an appeal to the consumer, and this relates to psychological traits of the consumer. According to Assael (2004), the consumer is subject to a level of involvement with the brand and also the consumer evaluates the brand based on the values of the brand and the benefits the consumer seeks from utilizing the brand. The relationship is sequential according to Assael whereby beliefs are formed about brands that influence attitudes towards the brand, which then influence an intention to either buy or not to buy. These stages involved in the process of making a purchasing decision related to the brand, can be identified as thinking and beliefs about the brand, feelings and evaluation of the brand, and finally actions, which means whether or not the brand is purchased. Assael maintains that the evaluation by the consumer should be guided by expectations about which brand will give the most satisfaction based on the benefits they seek. These benefits are prioritized in the consumer‟s mind and are related to brand characteristics. There is also a link between brands and the nationality of the brands in terms of the brands image. According to Usunier, national images are diffused by the products origin and by its brand name. He makes 5 points in this regard:

1/Images of imported products may be in opposition to national products, or image of national vs. international products.

2/National images of generic products, e.g. perfume and France.

3/National image of manufacturing company.

4/Image diffused by brand name.

5/Image of made in label.

(Usunier, 2005:278)

The above points illustrate the relationship between a brand and its country of origin. A domestically produced brand may enjoy an advantage over a foreign product based on a desire to support the domestic economy for example. The second point shows how a product category may have an association with a particular country, other examples could be Germany and beer or Russia and vodka, to name a couple. The third point places the emphasis the strength of the brand‟s company, which becomes synonymous with a positive image of that company. The fourth point relates to how the brands name itself

can evoke images of a particular country, linguistic reasons seem the most obvious example. While the final point refers to the association of the country with high quality production, the „Made in Italy‟ example is one that springs to mind. The strong social role or significance that brands can have, specifically in the brewing sector was

exemplified in an American case provided by Holt (2004). He identified beer brands as cultural brands that perform the function of generating identity myths, which are selling points as they reassure the consumer‟s identity. Certain brands can go beyond being well known, to becoming part of the social iconography of a society, and Holt gives criteria for the attainment of iconic status. First and foremost they need to have a strong identity myth that addresses acute contradictions in a society, they perform as cultural activists as they encourage people to think differently about themselves, secondly they rely on breakthrough performances rather than consistent communications. They become tremendously desirable as a result of a few masterful performances rather than a bevy of constant communiqués. There is a resulting halo effect bestowed on these iconic brands.

Holt claims that this effect is derived from the fact that the identities of the consumers use the brand to cement their identities. Holt‟s basic building blocks of myth markets provide a nexus between branding, national ideology and culture. In the context of myth markets, Holt maintains national ideologies and nations need a moral consensus to function, stating that citizens must identify with the nation accept its institutions and work towards its betterment. Ideas that are conveyed by the myths are usually constructed around ideas of individual success and manhood. This is Holt‟s perspective and is clearly ethno-centric as it assumes that these ideas form the basis of myth construction, it seems to be culturally bound to an American male outlook. This outlook is however the

perspective of the nation that drives globalization and is therefore more significant in this context than it would otherwise be as a national perspective. Within the context of

identities, tensions arise between the idyllic notions that ideologies purport to provide and individual experience, producing intense desires and anxieties. He claims that the

distance between model and everyday life acts as a cultural engine, and from these contradictions, myth markets arise in order to fill the vacuum. This might even raise the idea that perhaps globalization fills the void left by the failures of real life experiences to meet the expectations laid down by nationalist and political ideologies. The essential

point here is that brands derive much of their power or sway over the consumer from their ability to exploit tensions or identity issues that arise in societies.

Although the focus of this section is more on the economic aspects of branding, products and the consumption process, there is a clear indication that in addition to an economic value, branding has a social value, a psychological value and has a strong and tangible connection to issues of national identity.