ANA MARÍA MARFIL JUSTO
Intercultural Communication Competence Acquisition through English as a Foreign Language.
Finnish and Spanish Primary Education Classrooms. A Comparative Study.
University of Eastern Finland, Itä-Suomen Yliopisto Philosophical Faculty
School of Applied Educational Sciences and Teacher Education.
Master’s Degree Programme in Early Language Education for Intercultural Communication.
Master’s Thesis in Education November 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...4
List of Tables ...5
List of Abbreviations ...6
1. Introduction ...7
2. Concepts and Definitions ...10
3. Intercultural Communication Competence ...17
3.1. Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language teaching ...17
3.2. Competences for Foreign Language teachers to Teach Intercultural Communication Competence ... 21
3.3. Guidelines for an Effective Intercultural Communication Competence Teaching in the Foreign Language Lesson...22
4. Children as Foreign Language Learners ...24
4.1. Methodologies and Approaches to Teaching Foreign Language ...26
4.1.1. Grammar-Translation Method ...27
4.1.2. Direct Method ...29
4.1.3. Audiolingual Method ...30
4.1.4. Communicative Approach ...31
4.1.5. Natural Approach ...33
4.2. English as a Foreign Language Teaching in Finland ...36
English as Foreign Language in grades 7-9 of the Finnish Primary Education Level ...38
4.3. English as a Foreign Language Teaching in Spain ...40
2
5. Research Design and Research Questions ...42
6. Methodology ...43
6.1. Barriers to the Research ...44
6.2. Qualitative Research Methods ...45
6.3. Data Collection Method: Interviews ...46
6.4. Sample Population Selection ...47
6.5. Data Analysis ...48
6.6. Temporality ...50
6.7. Presentation of the Qualitative Data ...51
7. Materials ...55
Lesson Plans ...56
o Lesson Plan I: Cultural Splash! ... 57
o Lesson Plan II: Countries & Languages ... 58
o Lesson Plan III: Language Tree... 62
o Lesson Plan IV: Cultural Identity ... 65
o Lesson Plan V: Final Presentation ... 68
8. Findings and Discussion ...71
8.1. Main Finings. Research Questions I: Intercultural Communication Competence through English as a lingua franca at the Primary Education Level. ...71
8.1.1. Finland ...71
8.1.2. Spain ...72
8.2. Main Findings. Research Question II: Cultural Self-awareness of the Students ...76
9. Conclusion ...82
9.1. Implications for Further Research ...83
9.2. Ethics, Validity and Limitations ...84
10. References ...85
11. Appendixes Appendix 1: Resources for the Intercultural Communication Project. Countries and Languages. ...97
Appendix 2: Resources for the Intercultural Communication Project. Languages Tree’s Leaves ...99
Appendix 3: Resources for the Intercultural Communication Project. Cultural Identity ...100
Appendix 4: Resources for the Intercultural Communication Project. Cultural Identity: Finland & Spain. ...101
Appendix 5: Informed Consent Form for the Interviewees in Spain ...102
Appendix 6: Informed Consent Form for the Interviewees in Finland ...103
Appendix 7: Translated Informed Consent Form for the Interviewees (Spain) ...104
Appendix 8: Translated Informed Consent Form for the Interviewees (Finland) ...105
Appendix 9: Interview for the participants in both countries ... 106
Appendix 10: Skype© Session Finland-Spain 2018 (Saari School, Rovaniemi & Nstr. Sra. del Recuerdo School, Madrid) ... 107
4 ITÄ-SUOMEN YLIOPISTO – UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND
Tiedekunta – Faculty Philosophical Education
Oasto - School
School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education
Tekijät – Author Ana María Marfil Justo Työn nimi – Title
Intercultural Communication Competence Acquisition through English as a Foreign Language.
Finnish and Spanish Primary Education Classrooms. A Comparative Study.
Pääaine – Main Subject Education
Työn laji - Level Master’s Degree
Päivämäärä - Date 01.11.2018
Sivumäärä – Number of pages 95 + 10 appendixes
Tiivistelmä – Abstract
The main aim of this study is to develop the acquisition of the ICC (Intercultural Communi cation Competence) among the 5th and 6th graders in the Primary Education Level in two different countries of the European Union: Finland and Spain. In addition, the research is conducted pursuing that FL (Foreign Language) teaching cannot be longer regarded as a mainly linguistic task. As a matter of fact, language teachers are required to teach Intercultural Communication Competence and skills, as an essential key concept in their teaching practice (Council of Europe, 1997). Therefore, language and culture are inseparable concepts which provide an entirely comprehension of the Foreign Language teaching and learning (Bennett, 2015). Furthermore, the second aim of the study is to enhance the cultural self-awareness of the students by learning about the Intercultural Communication Competence throughout English as a Foreign Language lessons at the school, which is a directly linked concept with the intercultural communication acquisition.
In other words, there is a need in language teaching and learning to develop more accurate understanding of the nature of culture and the ways in which cultures can be investigated in the language classroom (Liddicoat and Scarino, 2013).
Avainsanat – Keywords
Intercultural Communication Competence, Acquisition, Learning, Primary Education, Foreign Language, Culture, Finland, Spain.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Concepts and Definition ...15
Table 2. Temporality ...50
Table 3. Effect of the Project on the pupils ...52
Table 4. Knowledge Acquired ...52
Table 5. Lesson II: Countries & Languages ...52
Table 6. Lesson III: The Language Tree ...53
Table 7. Lesson IV: Cultural Identity ...53
Table 8. Lesson V: Final Presentation ...53
Table 9. Finnish/Spanish Culture ...54
Table 10. Emotions towards the Intercultural Communication ...54
Table 11. Impact from the Faced Culture ...54
Table 12. Final Impact of the Interaction & Effectiveness ...54
Table 13. Main Findings ...81
6 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EFL English as a Foreign Language ELF English as a Lingua Franca ESL English as a Second Language FL Foreign Language
ICC Intercultural Communication Competence
LF Lingua Franca
L1 First Language
L2 Second Language
OLE Open Learning Environments STT Student’s Talking Time TTT Teacher’s Taking Time
1. INTRODUCTION
The remarkable transformation and growth of the globalization process, beginning in the second half of the XX century, mainly occurred as a consequence of a great variety of economic, political and societal changes (Craft & O'Rourke, 2013). Along, those modifications had its impact at a worldwide level in the past and in the current global population since it involves the decreasing of the regional preoccupations and therefore, the projection of those affairs in a global and international paradigm
(Dragsbaek & Hersh, 2003). Ergo, the gradual changes and disappearances in borders, international boundaries as well as the increment of the migratory flows resulted in a more intercultural society where people need to interact with other individuals coming from different cultural backgrounds and in most of the cases different linguis tic
realities. Plus, despite of the fact that the communication process can occur in many different forms, language is the primary vehicle of human interaction, of socialization and throughout which the social relations are built and maintained (Willis, 1992). Plus, the development of the new technologies, enable the individuals to regularly
communicate through technical devices all over the world. Even to exchange opinions and to jointly work with people whom had not never met face-to face before (Block &
Cameron, 2002). As a consequence, this kind of interactions offer an exceptionally rich intercultural outline where identifying a common language in which developing the international communicative act. Wherefore, finding a lingua franca is crucial in order to meet the prior cross-cultural expectations established by the intercultural encounters.
Therefore, referring to the previous statement, the establishment of the English language as a lingua franca among the intercultural society concluded as a medium to exchange opinions among the members of a certain community as well as to implement the intercultural communicative act. Indeed, concerning the English language, its rapidly growing supremacy as the world’s main language, consequently resulted on a new tendency which has culminated in a greater cultural diversity and globalised world society (Jenkins, 2007). Thence, the learning about other cultures, its discovering aside from being able to talk about our home one in a FL or L2 is a considerable breakthrough in the intercultural communication process. Furthermore, sharing the English language as a lingua franca with other non-native speakers of English, sets a multilingual model
8 where despite of the misunderstanding arisen, the speakers can properly communicate (Kirkpatrick, 2011). Hence, taking into consideration the aforementioned discussion, it is considered to mention that the predominantly young global population is generally thirsty of knowledge about how to culturally communicate with intercultural encounters and the intercultural attitudes emerged. Taking into account the lack of understanding regarding how to tackle with the disagreements emerging from the future globalised society in which they will live as an essential prerequisite to learn.
Accordingly, the present thesis research pursues for the development in the acquisition of the Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC) at the Primary
Education level in two European countries: Finland and Spain. As a consequence, it is a comparative study where an online project was designed and implemented in one
Primary School Community per country. In addition, students in both classrooms will cooperatively work through Skype© sessions with its corresponding cultural interaction among the pupils participating in the study in both states. Ergo, in this comparative research, participants in Finland and Spain are encouraged to exchange information about their home culture and their home country using the English language as a lingua franca for communicating among the sampling or intercultural encounters. Yet, as a matter of fact, it is considered to mention that the sample population of the study was selected from the Finnish Primary school called “Saaren Koulu” (Saari School) located in Rovaniemi, Finland. As well as, from the Spanish one called “Colegio Nuestra Señora del Recuerdo” (Our Lady of Remembrance College), a Roman Catholic school belonging to the Jesuits Order, located in Madrid (Spain). Furthermore, the grade of the students taking part in the study was 6th graders in the Finnish side and 5th graders in the Spanish one. Later on, the data collected through semi-structures interviews was analysed and compared, defining different categories for that analysis and comparison.
In addition, an equally significant aspect to take into consideration in the present study is the recognition of the similarities and differences found when establishing a proper intercultural communication setting in the classroom learning environment.
Consequently, the assimilation of the similar and alien cultural aspects arising during the intercultural communication process also inquires for the abandon of the so-called cultural ethnocentrism and advocates for the breakage of cultural stereotypes. Not only
concerning the faced culture during the present research but also regarding those
cultures the pupils will run into in their adult life. Considering that the values in one side are not necessarily the values the society owns in the other cultural reality the students are exposed to. Thereupon, looking with “cultural eyes” is an important issue addressed in the project developed in the following pages since the participants
involved in the study were encouraged to basically learn from their intercultural
encounters at the other side of the screen instead of judging them based on the symbols, heroes, rituals or values inherited from their home culture. As a consequence, the
learning environment became much more varied, pluricultural and culture-friendly.
On balance, the current youth generations are called to build social and cultural relationships with individuals coming from different countries, cities and cultures. To appreciate their values and the cultural background they carry is a sine qua non aspect to acquire in the ongoing globalised world where we currently live. Thus, the
acquisition of a proper intercultural communication employing the English language as a lingua franca is an essential condition concerning the new challenges arising from the present global society. Ergo, understanding how to effectively appreciate those aspect is the solution for a good intercultural dialogue and personal growth.
10 2. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Primarily, it is essential to define the concepts and terms that stablish the
foundations of the present thesis research. Thereupon, in the first place it is fundamental for the study to set the definition of the concept culture. As a matter of fact, debate over the meaning of the term has a long and contested background and throughout the
history, there have been numerous anthropologists who have tried to provide an accurate definition of the concept. However, despite of the enormous variety of definitions
provided, most of them coincide in some common features. Therefore, to certain extent, the term culture is a complex interconnected system of knowledge, assumptions,
expectations and behaviours, which are nonconsciously acquired by the human being.
Accordingly, it is not innate, and it does not form part of the human’s DNA. It is not unique to individual persons, contrarily; groups of people around the world share it.
And eventually, it is compound as well by morals, beliefs, arts, law and custo ms. For that reason, when one aspect changes, it will affect other parts of the aforementioned cultural system (Bennett, 2015). Hence, the concept “culture” encompasses a great variety of different elements related to the FL learner’s nationhood, covering both formal and deep culture. Formal culture includes arts, music, literature, technology, architecture and politics. On the other hand, deep culture refers to a particular nation’s lifestyle such as the eating habits, folk costumes, what the members of a certain culture do for a living, and how they express their attitudes towards their friends, family
members and relatives (Brooks, 1983).
Notwithstanding, Geert Hofstede, the so-called father of the cross-cultural
research, described the concept of culture dividing the term in four different categories, which are: symbols, heroes, rituals and values. At first glance, symbols are understood as words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a particular meaning recognized as such only by those who share that specific culture. As an illustration of this new
concept, it could be a certain word in a language or jargon, the flag of a certain country or the climate in a specific region. On the other hand, heroes are defined as persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics that are highly prized in a culture and thus serve as models for behaviour. Subsequently, the next category in Hofstede’s explanation of culture is rituals, understood as the collective activities that
are technically superfluous to reach desired ends but that, within a culture, are
considered socially essential. Examples of this concept include ways of greeting and paying respect to others as well as social and religious ceremonies such as weddings or family gatherings (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010a). Finally, the core cultural concept according to Hofstede’s dimensions is values, defined as the broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs to others. Values are usually dichotomist feelings with an added arrow indicating a plus and a minus side, like evil against good or dirty versus clean among others.
In the second place, it exits another basic concept in the study directly related with the previous one which paves the way for a better understanding of the core aim of the research. The concept is intercultural communication. Ergo, the intercultural
communication term could be defined as the process throughout which the
communicative interaction in between two or more different members from different cultures is examined based on the behaviour shown out of the given interaction (Spencer-Oatey, & Kotthoff, 2007). Although, the term could be also defined as the communicative process in between people from different ethnic, social, gendered cultures within the boundaries of the same national language or lingua franca (Nikolov, Mihaljevic, Mattheoudakis, Lundberg, & Flanagan, 2007). Additionally, this concept leads us to a derived one called intercultural communication skills. Defined as the ability of the individuals to understand cultural conditions and other factors affecting his/her own perceptions, judgements, feelings and actions, as well as thos e of other people to respect, to value them, and to develop common ways of working in order to create a productive synergy (R. Basbagi, 2012).
Thirdly, the aforementioned described term precedes to another important concept called cultural relativism. Indeed, according to the French anthropologist Claude Léve- Strauss (1908-2009), the cultural relativism is an essential part in the intercultural communication skills since it affirms that one culture has no absolute criteria for judging the activities of another culture as “low” or “noble”. However, every single culture can and should apply such judgements to its own activities, because its members are actors as well as observers. Therefore, this concept is a milestone in the present research since the current academic community is called to learn how to effectively face
12 the new aspects arising from the ongoing globalized world where cultural and li nguistic challenges will constantly emerge (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010b). As a
consequence, and in order to clarify the concept for the reader, it is considered to mention that the cultural relativism does not support the lack of rules nor laws in a certain society, but it does call for suspending the judgments when facing a new culture or intercultural encounter. This concept is further developed in the present research with the main purpose of enhancing the intercultural communication skills of the learner . In addition, the most compelling evidence regarding the aforementioned statement is related to the main aims of the second or foreign language acquisition, which are to enable the students to communicate with people coming from different linguistic and cultural background in the current multicultural and changing world (Canková et al., 2007a). Moreover, the notion of cultural identity is essential in the developing of the research as well. It covers the idea of the learner’s membership in both, their
homeland’s formal and deep culture. It also relates to the membership in all the spiritual and material values of their local environment (Kramsch, 1998). And it is intended to the way of life of the users of a language, and to the common system of standards for perceiving believing, evaluating and acting that the student has acquired along his/her life.
Subsequently, along similar lines a new controversial concept, which many scholars have been writing about for the over five decades emerges, within the same field of study as the previous ones, it is called Intercultural Communication
Competence (ICC). A new term seemed as the personal ability to behave adequately and in a flexible manner when confronted with actions, attitudes and expectations of representatives of foreign cultures (Meyer, 1991). It has been conceptualised as well as the impression management that allows members of different cultural systems to be aware of their cultural identity and cultural differences, and to interact effectively and appropriately with each other in diverse contexts by agreeing on the meaning of diverse symbol systems with the result of mutually satisfying relationship (Darla K., 2009).
Correspondingly, the cultural ethnocentrism is the view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and all others are scaled or rated with reference to it (Sumner, 2012). Moreover, at first glance, cultural ethnocentrism is a consequence of
basing people’s expectations regarding cross-cultural interaction on their own culture’s
norms and rules (B. Gudykunst, 2003). It is an essential term in the study since; in order to acquire a proper intercultural communication competence, pupils should abandon cultural ethnocentrism aspects. Equivalently essential in the present study is the term cultural empathy. The empathy a learner owns in the foreign language learning, cross- cultural and regarding the intercultural communication skills. It involves to place yourself into the new cultural reality of the language which is being learnt or acquire d, as well as to be able to efficiently communicate with the native speakers of the target language (Zhu, 2011).
Likewise, equally important is the term acculturation that comprehends those phenomena, which result when groups of individuals sharing different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton & Herskovits, 1936). Besides, this term also involves the process of pulling out of the world view or ethos of the first culture, learning new ways of meeting old problems, and shedding ethnocentric evaluation (Damen, 1987). It is important in this study since in order to improve the intercultural communication competence the pupils are to discover a new culture and to reflect about their home one in the first place.
Furthermore, with the main purpose of narrowing down the study, there are various concepts gathered, to be defined. The majority of them related to the language learnt by the sample population selected and to the educational level in which the study is developed. Thence, most of these terms are directly related to the main objectives of the study, which are to handle with the aim of teaching intercultural communication competence using the English language as a lingua franca among the intercultural encounters. Understanding lingua franca as the language that is used for
communicative reasons between different groups of people, each speaking a different language. In fact, it could be an internationally used language of communication, such as English, and it could be the native language of one of the groups or contrarily a shared language among the intercultural encounters (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1993a).
Consequently, the definition of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is a core concept in the present research, meaning precisely that English is a Foreign Language,
14 not used for any national purpose but used for international intentions. On the other hand, when we speak about English being as a Second Language (ESL), it is indicated that English occupies a place, greater or less, increasing or decreasing in the national environment of the learner. It might be the language of newspapers, radio programmes, street signs or used for any of the institutional purposes given above (Harrison, 1973).
Consequently, EFL refers to the English language that is taught and learnt in a country where it is not the primary language (Boulter, 2007). It is basically, the role of English in countries where it is taught as a subject in schools but not used as a medium of instruction in education nor as a language of communication (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1993b).
In addition, as the research is conducted in the 5th and 6th grades of the Primary Education Level, it is considered to briefly define this educational stage with the main aim of confining its meaning in the study. For that reason, the Primary Education is the elementary period of education at the school which is compulsory, and which generally goes from six years old to approximately twelve years old of the students.
However, it could vary from country to country. This level provides students with
fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e.: literacy and numeracy) and establishes a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary school. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The legal age of ent ry is usually not below 5 years old or above seven years old. Finally, this level typically lasts for six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016).
Finally, as the study compares how the intercultural communication competence (ICC) is learnt through the 6th and 5th grades of the Primary Education Level in Finland and Spain, respectively. Ergo, the definition of what a comparative study must be present in the study. Therefore, a comparative study is the academic field of study that examines education in one country (or groups of countries) by using data and insights drawn from the practises a situation in another country, or countries (Manichander, 2016). In the specific case of this study, they intercultural communication competence using the English language as a LF will be examine among the 6th graders in Finland
and the 5th graders in Spain. And eventually, the definitions above described are
hereafter organised in the following table below, in order to provide an integrated overview of the main terms described in the previous pages of this chapter.
CONCEPT DEFINITION
Culture Complex interconnected system of knowledge, assumptions, expectations and behaviours, which are nonconsciously
acquired by the human being. It is not innate, it does not form part of the human’s DNA. It is not unique to individual
persons; groups of people around the world share it. Finally, it is compound by morals, beliefs, arts, law and customs. Ergo, when one aspect changes, it will affect other parts of the aforementioned cultural system (Bennett, 2015).
Intercultural Communication
Process throughout which the communicative interaction in between two or more different members from different cultures is examined based on the behaviour shown out of the given interaction (Spencer-Oatey, & Kotthoff, 2007).
Intercultural Communication
Skills
Ability of the individuals to understand cultural conditions and other factors affecting his/her own perceptions, judgements, feelings and actions, as well as those of other people to respect, to value them, and to develop common ways of working in order to create a productive synergy (R. Basbagi, 2012).
Cultural Relativism It affirms that one culture has no absolute criteria for judging the activities of another culture as “low” or “noble”.
Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC)
The personal ability to behave adequately and in a flexible manner when confronted with actions, attitudes and
expectations of representatives of foreign cultures (Meyer, 1991).
16 Cultural
Ethnocentrism
The view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and all others are scaled or rated with reference to it (Sumner, 2012).
Cultural Empathy The empathy a learner owns in the foreign language learning, cross-cultural and regarding the intercultural communication skills (Zhu, 2011).
Acculturation Phenomena resulting when groups of individuals sharing
different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton & Herskovits, 1936).
Lingua Franca Language that is used for communicative reasons between different groups of people, each speaking a different language (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1993a).
English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
English is not used for any national purpose but used for international intentions (Harrison, 1973).
English as Second Language (ESL)
English occupies a place, greater or less, increasing or
decreasing in the national environment of the learner. It might be the language of newspapers, radio programmes, street signs or used for any of the institutional purposes given above (Harrison, 1973).
Primary Education Level that provides students with fundamental skills in
reading, writing and mathematics (i.e.: literacy and numeracy) and establishes a solid foundation for learning and
understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary school (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016).
Table 1: Concepts and Definitions
3. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
3.1. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
In the first place, this chapter presents an overview about the needs of teaching Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC) in the Foreign Language (FL) lessons at the Primary Education Level. Indeed, the prevailing worldwide society will demand the students to be able to communicate with people coming from different cultural backgrounds and different countries using in most of the cases the English language as a lingua franca. Besides, modern societies are characterised by growing ethnic, cultural, linguistic and social diversity. Therefore, the intercultural communication competence will be increased both, directly and indirectly, stablishing contacts among people and products coming from different cultural backgrounds (Breka & Petravić, 2015).
Consequently, the importance of this kind of education and intercultural understanding has been highly recognised in the past decades (Larzén, 2005). As a matter of fact, this research pursues the idea of abandoning the commonly named cultural ethnocentrism that characterises some societies around the world, with the main purpose of enhancing the intercultural communication skills of the participants involved in the study. Indeed, this is one of the reason why the ICC is needed in the current Primary School
classrooms. To enhance the intercultural communication of the students and to improve the recognition of the differences and similarities of the cultures and nationalities around us. Nevertheless, the intercultural communication competence in the FL classroom is currently aiming to develop the intercultural communication skills throughout teaching culture over language and teaching language and culture in an interchangeable manner (Canková et al., 2007c).
Although this might be true, notwithstanding the fact that a complete
understanding of a language would not take place without learning about the culture in which that language is spoken. A good knowledge of grammatical rules, a grea t variety of vocabulary terms, a few memorized speech acts and cultural facts will not
sufficiently to help non-native speakers of a foreign language to socialize, negotiate or develop relationships such as friendship in the foreign language or with intercultural encounters neither (Canková et al., 2007b). Additionally, it does exist many different
18 barriers to overcome regarding the ICC in the FL teaching and learning. Taking into account that, despite of the recommendations from the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the national curricula for language teaching in many countries. The focus of language learning, teaching and teacher education is still , largely devoted to the development of grammatical and lexical competences. Moreover, in order to be able to successfully teach intercultural communication, teachers should themselves acquire the qualities they intend to promote in their learners. Qualities such as open-mindedness and respect for otherness (Doyé, 1991). In addition, as some studies have proved, not always these aspects are reflected in the contemporary FL teachers.
Indeed, qualities like these are strongly linked to the personal growth of an individual, and teacher education programmes can hardly be expected to develop something that should be seen as aspects of the lifelong socialization process (Risager, 2000).
Subsequently, the ICC in the foreign language classroom involves so many aspects to take into consideration when teaching culture and cultural awareness. Indeed, in the Primary Education Level and according to what several methods concerning the
intercultural communication competence support, the dissemination of knowledge about how cultures are similar and different is essential. Moreover, the intercultural
communication teaching should be instructed encouraging students to think and feel comfortable about interacting with people from different cultures (Milhouse, 1996). As a matter of fact, teachers should pre-teach how individuals or groups of people can, differently interpret the concept of culture and its components. Consequently, to
examine the usefulness of the cultural briefing for those students who are going to live, work or meet students from the target culture or an alien one, is a key issue in the intercultural communication teaching and learning. Understanding the term “cultural briefing” as the discovering of a culture or country that a person or students is about to visit or have contact to (Utley, 2013).
In addition, the foreign language teaching and learning is directly related to the cultural background in which the lessons take place. Ergo, according to Geert Hofstede, there are seven major elements, identified on a study of attitude obtained from the IBM employees in more than 50 different countries during the eighties. It was a research conducted about how different cultures differ among each other. Those attitudes were
named by Geert Hofstede as cultural dimensions (Rienties & Tempelaar, 2012). In fact,
it has been shown that these cultural dimensions are defined as the aspects of a certain culture that can be measured relative to other cultures (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). These dimensions were categorized as power distance, femininity versus
masculinity, collectivism versus individualism and uncertainty avoidance.
To start with, the first cultural dimension to be defined is the power distance dimension, understood as the general assumption that the power is not equally
distributed among the members of a specific culture, institution or organization. In other words and taking into account the sociological perspective, the power is distributed based on the most powerful members in a specific society (Hofstede, Hofstede &
Minkov, 2010). Secondly, the following cultural aspect to be defined is the femininity versus masculinity dimension, defined as the distinction between the masculine societies where emotional gender roles are clearly set and the so-called feminine societies where emotional gender roles overlap. Therefore, in a feminine society, men and women are supposed to be modest, tender and concerned with respect and quality of life.
Nevertheless, in a masculine society, aspects such as earnings, recognition, labor promotions or challenges are essential goals to pursue. Notwithstanding, in a feminine society, cooperation, employment security or living area are important characteristics in order to develop a good coexistence among its citizens (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). As a consequence, taking into consideration that these cultural dimensions are essential in order to understand the academic environment of the teaching and learning process, two other dimensions will be defined. The following one is the collectivism versus individualism dimension. An important aspect to take into account when thinking about the educational and academic context in which this study is developed. In fact, a collective society means that the interests or desires of the group prevails over the interests of the individual persons. Consequently, the power of the group has a strong connotation here. On the other hand, in the individualistic societies, the interests of the individuals prevail over the interests of the rest of the population. Everyone is expected to look after him or herself and to be independent and responsible for your own
decisions. However, in collectivist societies, people from birth are strongly associated to strong groups such as the family (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). Moreover, the fourth cultural dimension developed by Geert Hofstede is uncertainty avoidance.
20 Therefore, uncertainty avoidance is the way of handling uncertainty. As a matter of fact, it is considered to mention that at some moment in time all human beings
regardless their origins or cultural background, need to face facts about the future, facts that we do not know and with which we need to live anyway (Hofstede, Hofstede &
Minkov, 2010).
To continue with, other two dimensions were added afterwards to the previously described ones. These two new dimensions are: indulgence versus restrain and long term orientation versus short term orientation. The first new dimension called
indulgence versus restrain stands for the dichotomist concept of a tendency to allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying li fe and having fun (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010) and the control of those basic human desires relating to the enjoyment of life (Hofstede, 2011). In other words, it stands for the quality of life of the population of a certain country. On one hand, regarding the last cultural dimension explained, long term orientation stays for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, while short-term orientation dimension stands for the fostering of virtues in relation to the past and the present, particularly respecting traditions, claiming for the preservation of the personal image and fulfilling the social obligations (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010).
On the other hand, it is considered important to conclude mentioning that in most people’s minds the intercultural communication is an element related to linguistic problems and cultural differences. In fact, when the intercultural encounters do not share the same native language, communicating with non-native speakers in a lingua franca could lead to these kinds of difficulties. Actually, different accents, speech conventions or nonverbal attitudes among other reasons can act as barriers in the communicative act (Blommaert, 1994). However, overcoming and understanding these difficulties is one of the main objectives in the present research since pupils will
acquire the abilities and skills to interact with non-native speakers of English using that language as a lingua franca.
3.2. COMPETENCES FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS TO TEACH
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
To start with, it is relevant for the present study to set the different competences that a FL teacher should own in order to develop a proper intercultural communication competence among his/her students. Therefore, to begin with, the cognitive dimension of knowledge (Breka & Petravić, 2015) is defined involving knowledge of the others and ourselves, indeed as Byram said, knowledge “of self and other” (Byram, 1997). It also includes knowledge of the individuals and knowledge about the social interaction that arises among them. Moreover, this dimension also gives general knowledge about the alien culture where the communication will be established with, as well as those culture-specific pieces of knowledge directly related with the previous ones.
Simultaneously, this aspect emerges with an insight into how culture affects language, communication and the willingness to integrate the intercultural communication
competence and the FL teaching (Sercu, 2005).
In the second place, the affective dimension arises comprising attitudes of open- mindedness and inclination towards abandoning cultural ethnocentric ideas or
behaviours. This dimension also involves being curious about others while respecting the differences which may arise during the intercultural communication dialogue (Byram, 1997). Nevertheless, it likewise involves a critical thinking attitude of the intercultural encounters since it entails the learners to critically evaluate the
representations of both one´s own and other cultures (Byram, 1997). Consequently, breaking with stereotypes and assumptions is an essential point in this aspect , letting the students discover by themselves the new culture and answering their doubts with
objectivity and responsibility. It encourages as well the idea of developing the cultural identity of the students taking into account the common aspects of the home culture of the leaners/teachers and the intercultural encounters faced coming from an alien culture.
Finally, the pragmatic dimension gives the teachers involved in this process skills of discovery or interacting and skills of interpreting and relating (Breka &
Petravić, 2015). On one hand, it involves being able to read authentic materials or interpreting documents coming from a foreign culture with the objective of being able to relate them with the home culture of the students or with other authentic materials of
22 the culture that pupils/teachers belong to. However, on the other hand, this dimension also involves leaning new cultural pieces of information, attitudes or skills, and to implement them in the intercultural interaction (Byram, 1997). This dimension is an essential in terms of the competences that a FL teacher need to gain since it sets its foundations in attitudinal aspect of the teachers involved in the intercultural
communication teaching-learning process.
3.3. GUIDELINES FOR AN EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE TEACHING IN THE FOREING LANGUAGE LESSON
FL teachers should focus on language teaching from a cultural point of view. This aspect is important in order to improve the student’s cultural sensitivity, cultural
acceptance, the understanding of cultural differences, and finally to enhance the correct use of language and culturally support this capacity (Kun, 2013). Additionally, the following guidelines described below emerged from the eagerness of assisting the FL teachers and educators, when teaching ICC efficiently in the FL classroom. Moreover, the already mentioned guidelines were collected and reviewed from a great variety of academic resources. Those resources consulted with the main aim of implicating teachers in designing meaningful lessons where the ICC could have a room in the development of the FL teaching and learning process.
1. FL teachers should encourage the students to talk about its home culture in order to be conscious about their own cultural traditions and background. Therefore, by using the English language to describe the learner’s own cultural identity and homeland, the learners’ ability to use English to talk about their motherland and culture will be emphasized. Finally, the learners will enhance their ability to see oneself as a part of a larger community, to contrast different alien cultures and to developing awareness of their own cultural identity (Nikolov, Mihaljevic,
Mattheoudakis, Lundberg & Flanagan, 2007).
2. FL teachers should design meaningful activities addressed to improve the
appreciation of the similarities and differences in between the home culture of the students and the culture of the community or countries where the target language is spoken (Corbett, 2003). For instance, information gap activities which may
involve the exchange of knowledge between partners or the members of the team
if cooperative learning strategies are implemented (e.g. jigsaw reading and listening). Some other activities involving the transfer of information (e.g. from visual images to verbal descriptions) and finally, some involving the expression of differing personal opinions (e.g. ranking exercises).
3. Language teachers need to introduce students to the language’s cultural
background. The language’s background knowledge is an important part of the linguistic culture, so called cultural origins (Kun, 2013). Ergo, popular festivities or celebrations such as Halloween, Saint Patrick’s Day, Thanksgiving, the 4th of July or Christmas among others commemorations, are to be included taking into consideration the target language taught in the FL classroom. In this particular case, the English Language and the Anglo-Saxon countries.
4. FL teachers should promote the implementation of face to face interviews with their pupils and with pupils from other cultures or nationalities, trying to conduct a small-scale ethnographic classroom cultural research. In addition, this fact involves the formulation of questions and it will therefore practice the use of the grammatical structures learnt. With respect to the school resources, it could be developed throughout role plays if the staff cannot count with electronic devices or students from other nationalities who work with. By doing these kind of activities, children will get to know different greetings, body language and English accents among other aspects (Corbett, 2003).
5. The FL classroom aims to provide cultural experiences for the pupils, for that reason, the FL teachers should use authentic teaching materials and cultural artefacts to plan their culture-oriented tasks and activities. Therefore, by using videos, authentic illustrations, photos, children’s books, games, rhymes, fairy tales, stories and songs their intercultural communication skills will be
encouraged (Malkina, 2009). By manipulating this kind of realia, the pupil is able to discover a new cultural reality.
24 4. CHILDREN AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS
The aim of this chapter is to define the processes that are being developed in the FL acquisition among the Primary Education Level students in Finland and Spain. In addition, as it has been claimed by numerous scholars, the academic education and training of the FL teachers is a fundamental issue in the linguistic context across Europe (Nikolov, Mihaljevic, Mattheoudakis, Lundberg & Flanagan, 2007). As a consequence, the European Union called for further responses with the main purpose of enhancing the proficiency of the productive and receptive basic linguistic skills of the early language and Primary education pupils (European Commission/Eurostat/EACEA/Eurydice, 2012).
To continue with, the language that children natively learn into their families allow them to forge an identity. Actually, that identity is considered to be as a strong relationship in between the language and the sense of belonging to a national group or national identity. Accordingly, language is a quite versatile concept since not only does it contribute to the communicative aspect but it also has been often said to be the
defining attribute of the Homo sapiens development (Meadows, 1993). Nevertheless, the native language or mother tongue acquisition, involves a cognitive development in the child’s brain as well. As a consequence, the mother tongue and the FL follow different procedures in the acquisition process. Indeed, the first language (L1) is acquired since the learner acquires it through experience; whereas the FL is learnt considering that it is usually taught at the school in a formal learning environment (House & Seligson, 1997).
Therefore, the relevancy of the English language teaching and learning as a FL is an essential element in the Primary Education classrooms in the current worldwide society.
In addition, as Vygotsky claimed, “although biological factors constitute the necessary prerequisite for elementary processes to emerge, sociocultural factors in contrast, constitute the necessary condition for the elementary natural processes to develop.”
(Lantolf & Appel, 1994).
Furthermore, providing that the Primary school classrooms try to reproduce the exact conditions in which the L1 is acquired. The main aspect nowadays is to provide an unconscious acquisition of the FL rather than a conscious formal learning of the target language (Pavlovskaya, 1999). Therefore, as Stephen Krashen claimed in his book titled
“Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning”, the FL teaching
should be taught throughout a Natural Approach. A foreign language teaching
methodology described later in the present chapter. Similarly, the learning of a new language follows a different process not only from the acquisition of mother tongue of the students but also from the learning of a different field of study. Indeed, concerning languages, the involvement of the human being is total since it affects his culture and , as it is previously mentioned, his sense of belonging to a certain community
(Krakowski, 1961).
In addition, there are different ideas concerning the children’s FL acquisition which are considered to mention in the present chapter. Actually, children are assumed to learn foreign languages using primarily implicit mechanism. Contrarily, adults
initially rely on explicit learning mechanism (Lichtman, 2015). To develop this concept further, implicit language learning happens unintentionally and without being
conscious about it when the learner is exposed to the learning input. Ergo, these learning mechanisms are linked to acquisition processes. Contrarily, explicit learning takes place consciously and the learner is totally aware of the pieces of knowledge who is learning (Ellis, 2009). Therefore, as it is previously mentioned, there are FL
methodologies which support this condition in the FL teaching and learning. Indeed, most recent and further developments about the components regarding the linguistic theory in the L1 and the FL acquisition in the early language education have been focused on the basic level of the FL (Haznedar & Gavruseva, 2008). Since the earlier the exposure to the foreign language is, the better the acquisition will be developed.
Moreover, as a matter of fact, infants who are exposed to more than one language simultaneously as native ones, start to produce their own language. Often for fun, but usually they get engaged with the “code-switching” element. Defined as the alternation in the use of two or more languages in the same utterance or during the same
conversation (Dulm, 2007). As a consequence, children who are exposed to two or more different languages or those who are living in a bilingual environment can interchange words in the languages acquired, regardless their level of proficiency in each language.
Finally, the methods and approaches described in the following lines; as well as the comparisons made in between the Finnish and Spanish systems of education
26 regarding the linguistic aspect, are to aim the attention at the study. With the main purpose of clarifying the contents and theories contained in the chapter to the reader.
4.1. METHODOLOGIES AND APPROACHES TO TEACH FOREING LANGUAGES The importance of the FL teaching and learning at the Primary Education Level is widely known by teachers and educators across the globe. However, there are some methodologies which are being successfully implemented in local and international primary school communities around the world which are considered to mention in the present chapter for their efficiency, knowledge and effectiveness towards the learning.
Those methods explained above are the following ones: the grammar-translation
method, the direct method, the audio-lingual method and the communicative and natural approach. Notwithstanding, some concepts are needed to add in order to provide a complete understanding of the chapter for the reader.
To begin with, one of the most important terms in the present description is the concept methodology, which could be defined as the study of the practices and
procedures used in foreign language teaching and learning, that deals with a plan for the presentation of a certain language and the principles and believes that u nderlie them.
Actually, a methodology is procedural, and it is based on an approach, a term that will be defined below (Nunan, 1991). Furthermore, according to J.C. Richards and T. Rodger a methodology set its foundations in three different levels: approach, design, and
procedure. Thereupon, the following term is approach, understood as an essential part of a certain methodology or the theory of language and language learning which sets the foundations of a method that provides the philosophical basis of belief concerning the field of study being considered. Besides, it could be also defined as the set of
assumptions or different points of view held by individuals concerned with their field in history (Hofler, 1983). Next, another relevant concept emerges, related to the lesson’s practicalities and planning of the method. It is the term design and it could be defined as the linguistic content, the specification for the lesson’s objectives and organization of its content. Plus, this term also involves a description of the role of teachers, learners and teaching materials. And eventually, the last concept to be defined is procedure, a concept concerned with techniques and practices involved in the method, as well as the
stages that are taken with the main purpose of developing the method in the most
adequate manner to fulfil the academic and pedagogical needs of the students.
Lastly, it is considered to say that the methods described in the following lines have been selected among a great variety of different methods based on their
recognition and reputation. Therefore, the existence of more teaching methodologies is obvious in the current educative communitive which is an ever-changing paradigm. The methods described are been implemented in FL lessons as well as, in text books or manuals for adults and young learners. Consequently, since the early childhood education is the theme that concerns the study, some methods have been selected in order to illustrate the historical and current FK teaching and learning reality regarding the ICC aspect.
4.1.1. Grammar-Translation Method
To start with, the grammar-translation method is a FL teaching and learning
methodology, which was originally used to teach dead languages such as Latin or Greek in the schools during the 18th and 19th centuries (Pavlovskaya, 1999). The main
objective of this traditional method is to assimilate the grammatical rules of the foreign language throughout lessons or by developing learning activities such as reading
comprehension questions or fill in the gap exercises, as well as the personal individual study. Besides, the learners must master the alphabet and graphic skills too in order to improve their proficiency level in the target language. Therefore, the teacher’s role in the classroom is essential in order to guide the students and to teach them the rules of the foreign language taught.
Furthermore, it is considered to mention in the present chapter that the most
important characteristics of the grammar-translation method is that the students are only allowed to listen to the explanations given by the class teacher during the lessons.
Therefore, the STT (Student’s Talking Time) is considerably lower that the TTT (Teacher’s Talking Time). Consequently, the speaking skills of the pupils will be weaker than other productive and receptive ones and pronunciation does not take place during the lessons. In addition, the principal techniques used in this method are related to memorization, translation, and the deductive approach. Indeed, the student needs to
28 be able to memorize the grammatical rules of the language and vocabulary terms in order to master the language. Moreover, the textbook is an essential tool in this method.
For that reason, the teacher does not have to be a proficiency speaker or orally fluent of the FL (Pavlovskaya, 1999b). Moreover, in connection with the previous statement, another important technique in this method is the deductive approach, where the
students have to extract the grammar rules or vocabulary terms from a t ext given in the L2. Translation will be also essential to learn and comparisons in between the L1 and L2 will be frequently made. Thus, the use of the mother tongue will be needed to make explanations and to contrast language grammatical patterns in between both languages.
On one hand, one of the main advantages in this method is that the language learning is done so rapidly by automatically learning the grammar rules and the main vocabulary terms. Accordingly, this method is very useful regarding the immediate language acquisition. Furthermore, talking about translation, it is implemented in this method to get the main idea of a text. However, the learning of a language through this method is done in an unnatural or unusual way since pupils are taught to translate concepts and grammatical structures from their native language to the target one (Natsir
& Sanjaya, 2014). Notwithstanding, for cultural reasons, there are some concepts which are not possible to translate from one language to another since t he translation will not be accurate (Bari Khan, Sana Mansoor & Manzoor, 2015). Therefore, this practise can lead to misses in translations and lacks of communications among the intercultural encounters.
On the other hand, reading and writing are the main skills the students learn in this method, since the students should be able to read authentic material texts in the target language, such as classic literature. Therefore, the oral speech comes later in the
process. Plus, the translation from the target language to the native one will provide the students with the meaning of the messages contained in the texts included in the lessons (Fish, 2003). Ergo, at first glance, the main techniques in this method are related to the translation of literary excepts from a certain document in the target language. Besides, reading comprehension activities are highly demanded in this approach since pupils are supposed to be able to identify the main idea in a text as well as the most important features of it. Similarly, those vocabulary terms contained in the text which are not
understood by the students, will be translated in their mother tongue. Hence, the
students will not elicit the meaning of the terms from the context, since their translation will be given. Yet, fill in the gaps activities are essential in this method due to the reading comprehension aspect and to the grammar point. For that reason, the pupils need to demonstrate their competence and performance in the language by developing this kind of exercises where in most of the cases only one answer is correct. Indeed, this idea leads to another aspect where the students are asked to use certain words in a
sentence (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
Finally, likewise memorization is an essential element in the present method.
Students should memorize lists of vocabulary or irregular verbs in order to be able to use them in the natural oral speaking. Notwithstanding, the fluency of the speaker is affected since the learner has not acquired the language naturally. Instea d, the instruction has been formal and extremely guided.
4.1.2. Direct Method
The direct method was mainly designed during the 19th century to enhance the spoken communication in the target language among the students in the classroom.
Indeed, it emerged as a reaction to political, social and international traveling needs in the worldwide society of that period (Pavlovskaya, 1999c). Therefore, the main
objective in this teaching-learning method is to learn how to orally communicate in the FL. Certainly, it enables the students to intercultural communicate in the target
language by associating meaning to the L2 through the use of realia, pictures or authentic materials in the LF lessons (Mart, 2013). Using in most of the cases, the English language as a lingua franca among the intercultural speakers.
In the first place and taking into account the statements provided in the previous paragraph, it could be derived some of the principles grounded on this method. In addition, as it is previously mentioned, due to the fact that the oral communication is the most important aspect in this approach, skills such as speaking, and listening will replace reading and writing in the lessons. Consequently, plenty of emphasis is done in pronunciation, intonation and phonetics. For that reason, the use of the L1 is completely forbidden in the classroom. Students should try to communicate in the language that
30 they are trying to learn. Furthermore, another important principle of this method
regarding communication is that the grammatical rules will be taught through the inductive method. Ergo, the method is pupils-centred. It involves problem-based learning, and social constructivist’s learning strategies such as cooperative learning (Prince & Felder, 2006). Therefore, there is no place here for long academic
explanations given by the teacher. In fact, teacher and students will work together in order to build the learning outcomes. Teachers should master the language and could monitor the lessons, and the activities proposed.
Secondly, no translators or dictionaries will be allowed. Teachers could support their explanations with realia such as flashcards around the classroom to teach for instance, new vocabulary terms. As a consequence, the FL is learnt by acquisition, following the same process as the mother tongue, by direct associations of v ocabulary terms and sentences. Under no circumstances, any word will be taught in isolation.
Nevertheless, there are critics known against this method as well. One of those
disadvantages set is concerning how to check if there are not misunderstandings among the pupils without using their mother tongue or L1 (Quing-xue & Jin-fang, 2007).
4.1.3. Audiolingual Method
To start with, the audiolingual method was developed during the Second World War in the United States by the soldiers in the army. That is the reason why, this
method is also called “the army method”. It was originally created to teach languages to the soldiers with the main purpose of communicating during internal or international armed conflicts (Matamoros - González, Rojas, Pizarro Romero, Vera-Quiñonez & Soto, 2017).
In the first place, it is considered to mention in the present chapter that this
method was mainly designed to offer a didactic and pedagogical orientation towards the oral speech (speaking) rather than other linguistic skills such as reading or writing (Woodsworth, 1965). In addition, it is based on two different psychological movements:
the behaviourism and the structural linguistics. Therefore, one of the most important figures in this method is B. F. Skinner, who learnt from Pavlov and Watson and
designed a very new concept called “Operant Conditioning”. This new concept/term is
directly related to the stimulus-response mechanism of the human being actions, not
only physical but also cognitive. Consequently, the operant conditioning processes have a relevant role in the origins of this method because it places more emphasis on the consequences of a stimulus and on the reinforcement of those stimulated consequences (Pavlovskaya, 1999d).
Secondly, the speech-based instruction is the main goal in this approach since the learners should develop an early oral proficiency in the target language. Therefore, the acquisition of the grammatical rules, as well as the cultural aspects of the given
language such as the literature, are insufficiently taught (Richards & Rodgers, 1986).
Furthermore, and according to this approach, the FL teaching and learning should be taught following a mechanical habit where the instructor provides with positive reinforcements when correct answers are given. As a consequence, practising the
functions of the language is a key concept since performing ready formulated dialogues is essential due to the given importance of the oral speech in this methodology.
Understanding those functions of the language as the primary concept in the meaning of communication in a certain language. Furthermore, as it is mentioned in the previous statement, the spoken language is extremely significant in the present approach. Ergo, the oral linguistic skills will be taught before the written ones (Richards & Rodgers, 1986b). Finally, concerning the vocabulary terms contained in the lesson, they should be taught in a proper lexical and cultural learning environment where the learners will be able to relate those vocabulary concepts to the teaching and learning context, not by isolated terms. Consequently, this approach achieved an enormous success since among the society since the FL learners were tired of memorizing grammatical rules and structures.
4.1.4. The Communicative Approach
The main purpose of the communicative approach is the improvement of the communicative competence of the learner. Particularly, to enhance the ability to understand and use the language properly in order to be able to communicate in real situations in life. This includes both the spoken and written language and the four
32 linguistic skills: speaking, writing (productive) and reading and listening (receptive) (Darwish, 2016).
First and foremost, one of the most important aspects in this approach regarding the class management of the lessons concerns the learner’s educational and academic needs, since those are essential concepts during the development of the FL lessons.
Therefore, owing to this fact, it can be derived that it is a learner-centred approach.
Plus, since the main aim of this approach is to achieve an acceptable performance in the oral linguistic skills, it draws special attention on learning by doing (Roberts, 2004).
Correspondingly, more emphasis is placed on the learner’s fluency rather than on its accuracy towards the language. Consequently, mistakes are considered to be an indispensable part of learning. Furthermore, in order to acquire the communicative competence, the teaching-learning process should take place in a natural environment where the pupil feels free to spontaneously talk without feeling that him or her is been observed or assessed by an adult teacher. Ergo, techniques to learn in this approach are widely varied. To illustrate this idea, activities such as role plays, pair work or
individual learning tasks are deeply appreciated. Indeed, implementing those activities in Primary Education classroom should involve and reproduce the designing of
meaningful real communicative situations. Thereupon, the teacher’s role in this approach is built on the assistance and guidance to learning (Shastri, 2009).
In the second place, it might be concluded from the previous paragraph that the learners build their own learning with the assistance of the teacher, who will guide their learning process, creating interactive dialogues and collaboration among the learners to build meaning in a cultural context given. However, a lot of emphasis is placed on pronunciation too since as it is previously mentioned, the communicative act is the main aim in this approach (Richards, 2006). The use of authentic materials is an essential aspect as well. In fact, it is directly related to the cultural context where the teaching- learning process should take place. Notwithstanding, focusing on other aspects of the language, it is essential to remark that this approach reveals some limitations specially when implementing it in an early childhood environment. Not only, it will cause difficulties in those pupils who have problems in memorizing or in those who owns short attention spans (Chomsky, 1965), but also there is a lack of knowledge in the
grammatical aspect of the language. However, some scholars claim that the grammar
point is unconsciously learnt in those communicative situations.
Subsequently, a great variety of learning outcomes are expected from the students in this method. Most of them expected out of the input given during the lessons and out of the different learning tasks developed. In addition, these tasks are related to broaden the relationships of the students with native and non-native speakers of the target language, both in the classroom environment and outside. Yet, exchanging information and performing daily tasks such as developing conventional dialogues are essential tasks here as well as being able to interpret the written information contained in public advertisements, newspapers or announcements (Nunan, 1989). Furthermore, the
linguistic input referred in the previous statement is determined as the piece of information that rules a certain activity or exercise in the method. Certainly, this definition could be extrapolated to other methods or approaches in the p resent chapter.
Nevertheless, the topic that concerns this method derives the input in more
communicative tasks where the learners must practise their oral linguistic skills and comprehension (Çelik, 2014). Therefore, the communicative competence does not only apply to the oral speech but also to written messages.
To conclude, this approach is characterised as well for promoting the risk-taking of the students towards the learning (Raine, 2009). Ergo, as it is common in other methodologies i.e. the natural approach, the pupils are allowed to express themselves in the target language, experimenting with the learning and activating the previous pieces of learning that have been previously acquired. In addition, from the remarks done, it is stablished that the ultimate purpose of the communicative approach is to prepare the learners to improve their FL communicative abilities and skills in order to be able to establish a proper oral and written communication with native speakers or intercultural encounters (Wenjie, 2009).
4.1.5. The Natural Approach
The natural approach was originally designed by Tracy D. Terrel and Stephen D.
Krashen in the eighties of the twentieth century at the University of California, USA. It emerges as an opposing force the methods and approaches which had previously
