Bodies and persons : The politics of embodied encounters in asylum seeking

B o di es a n d p e rs o ns: T h e p oliti cs of e m b o di e d e n c o u nt e rs i n

as yl u m s e e ki n g

J o u ni H a¨kli a n d Ki rsi P a ulii n a K alli o

Ta m p er e U ni v ersit y, Fi nla n d

A bst r a ct

I n t his pa p er, w e pr o p os e t hat t h er e is a p oliti cs of e n c o u nt ers c e nt er e d o n t h e b o d y at pla y i n s e e ki ng as yl u m a n d r ef ug e, a n d t hat it is criti cal t o st u d y h o w it u nf ol ds fr o m t h e p oi nt of vi e w of b ot h g o v er ni ng a n d ag e n c y.

B uil di ng o n e xisti ng w or k t hat l o o ks at t h e r ol e of e m b o di m e nt i n t h e p oliti cal str uggl es of r ef ug e es, a n d l ea ni ng o n H el m ut h Pl ess n er’s origi nal t hi n ki ng a b o ut s o cial e m b o di m e nt, w e d e v el o p a t h e or eti cal u n d er- sta n di ng of t his p oliti cal d y na mi c, ill ustrati ng h o w it ca n h el p us ma k e s e ns e of p o w er r elati o ns a n d f or ms of g o v er na n c e a n d (lat e nt) r esista n c e i n v ol v e d i n it.

K e y w o r ds

b o d y o bj e ct, d estit u e nt p ot e ntial, e m b o di m e nt, e m pat h y, li v e d b o d y, migrati o n r egi m e, H el m ut h Pl ess n er

I I nt r o d u cti o n

T h e a g e n c y of r ef u g e es

i n n a vi g ati n g t h e g o v- er ni n g s yst e ms r el at e d t o f or c e d mi gr ati o n h as g ai n e d i n cr e asi n g att e nti o n i n h u m a n g e o gr a p h y a n d n ei g h b ori n g dis ci pli n es. S e e ki n g t o u n d er- st a n d t his p oliti c al d y n a mi c, a s c h ol ars hi p h as r e c e ntl y t ur n e d t o t h e b o d y, e m b o di e d k n o wl- e d g e a n d c or p or e al e xist e n c e as its k e y di m e n- si o ns. C alli n g f or f urt h er att e nti o n o n t h e b o d y i n t h e c o nt e xt of as yl u m a n d r ef u g e, w e f oll o w S mit h et al. ( 2 0 1 6), M o u nt z ( 2 0 1 8) a n d H o d g e ( 2 0 1 8), w h o p oi nt o ut t h at e m b o di m e nt its elf r e m ai ns u n d ert h e ori z e d, es p e ci all y w h e n it c o m es t o t h e i nt er pl a y b et w e e n r ef u g e e a g e n c y a n d st at e- b as e d mi gr ati o n r e gi m es. Criti c al of a p pr o a c h es t h at s e p ar at e t h e i nti m at e a n d e m o- ti o n al fr o m t h e g o v er n e d s p a c es a n d s c al es of t h e g e o p oliti c al, a n u m b er of f e mi nist s c h ol ars h a v e s o u g ht t o a d dr ess t h e i nt ert wi n e m e nt of t errit ori al b or d eri n g pr a cti c es, t h e mi gr a nts’

i nti m at e ( g e o) p oliti c al t a cti cs a n d e m oti o ns, a n d t h e m att er- of-f a ct n ess of t h e h u m a n b o dil y b ei n g ( e. g. Cl ar k, 2 0 1 7; E hr k a m p et al., 2 0 1 9;

Gil m arti n a n d K u usist o, 2 0 1 9; K o o p m a n, 2 0 1 1;

M arti n, 2 0 1 2; M o u nt z a n d H y n d m a n, 2 0 0 6;

P ai n a n d St a e h eli, 2 0 1 4; Si m o ns e n, 2 0 1 3; S mit h et al., 2 0 1 6; S h ar p, 2 0 1 1; V a¨ yr y n e n et al., 2 0 1 6).

B uil di n g o n i nsi g hts c o mi n g fr o m t his e m er- gi n g b o d y of w or k, t his p a p er s e e ks t o d e v el o p a t h e or eti c al a p pr o a c h o n t h e e m b o di e d e n c o u n- t ers t h at c h ar a ct eri z e sit u ati o ns of as yl u m s e e k- i n g i n t h e c o nt e xt of tr a ns n ati o n al mi gr ati o n c o ntr ol. As r e c e nt w or k t o c o n c e pt u ali z e e n c o u nt ers s h o ws, t h e t er m c a pt ur es w ell b ot h

C o r r es p o n di n g a ut h o r:

J o u ni Ha¨kli, S pa c e a n d P oliti cal Ag e n c y R es ear c h Gr o u p, Fa c ult y of Ma nag e m e nt a n d B usi n ess, FI- 3 3 0 1 4, Ta m p er e U ni v ersit y, Fi nla n d.

E mail: j o u ni. ha kli @t u ni.fi

Pr ogr ess i n H u ma n G e ogra p h y 1 – 2 2 ª T h e A ut h or(s) 2 0 2 0 Arti cl e r e us e g ui d eli n es:

sag e p u b. c o m/j o ur nals- p er missi o ns D OI: 1 0. 1 1 7 7/ 0 3 0 9 1 3 2 5 2 0 9 3 8 4 4 9

j o ur nals.sag e p u b. c o m/ h o m e/ p hg

t h e e v e ntf ul c o mi n g i nt o c o nt a ct b y b o dil y s u b- j e cts a n d t h e br o a d er c o nt e xt u al f or c es t h at m e di at e a n d s h a p e t h e s e e n c o u nt ers ( e. g.

N a y a k, 2 0 1 7; Si m o ns e n et al., 2 0 1 7; W e e et al., 2 0 1 9; Z a b or o ws ki a n d G e or gi o u, 2 0 1 9).

A n al yti c all y t h e t er m d e n ot es sit u ati o ns c h ar a c- t eri z e d b y ‘ diff er e n c e, r u pt ur e a n d s ur pris e’

( Wils o n, 2 0 1 7: 4 5 2) a n d p oi nts t o t h e t o p ol o gi es of ‘ e n c o u nt er as si m ult a n e o usl y a g e o hist ori c al pr o d u cti o n a n d a n i m m a n e nt s p ati al e v e nt’

( C o c k a y n e et al., 2 0 1 9: 1 0). F or us t his m a k es t h e e m b o di e d e n c o u nt er a pri m e a n al yti c al l e ns f or u n d erst a n di n g t h e m a n y ki n ds of r el ati o ns t h at o c c ur b et w e e n r ef u g e es a n d t h eir g o v er n- i n g. I n li n e wit h S ar a A h m e d ( 2 0 0 0: 9), w e s e e t h at ‘ e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n e m b o di e d s u bj e cts al w a ys h esit at e b et w e e n t h e d o m ai n of t h e p ar- ti c ul ar – t h e f a c e-t o-f a c e of t his e n c o u nt er – a n d t h e g e n er al – t h e fr a mi n g of t h e e n c o u nt er b y br o a d er r el ati o ns hi ps of p o w er a n d a nt a g o n- is m’. T h e w a y s h e li n ks e n c o u nt ers wit h e m b o- di m e nt a n d s ur pris e h as b e e n i nfl u e nti al i n m u c h s u bs e q u e nt lit er at ur e o n as yl u m a n d r ef u g e, a n d u n d erli n es t h e n e e d t o st u d y t h e c o mi n g t o g et h er of s u bj e cts a cr oss i nstit uti o n al p o w er diff er e nti als.

T o bri d g e e xisti n g a p pr o a c h es, a n d t o t h e o- ri z e t h e p oliti c al t e nsi o ns pr es e nt i n t h es e e m b o- di e d e n c o u nt ers, w e pr o p os e a n a n al yti c al disti n cti o n b et w e e n r ef u g e es as b o di es a n d r ef- u g e es as p ers o ns.

Mi n df ul of f e mi nist s c h ol ar- s hi p o n t h e b o d y, w e li n k t his disti n cti o n i nt o l o n gst a n di n g eff orts t o c h all e n g e, r at h er t h a n r eif y, d u alist t hi n ki n g ( L o n g h urst, 1 9 9 7; Sil v e y, 2 0 1 7). O ur c o n c e pt u al w or k dr a ws fr o m H el- m ut h Pl ess n er’s a p pr o a c h o n s o ci al e m b o di- m e nt, st e m mi n g fr o m his p hil os o p hi c al a nt hr o p ol o g y ( Pl ess n er, 1 9 7 5, 2 0 1 9). W e c o n- si d er it us ef ul i n d e e p e ni n g o ur u n d erst a n di n g of e m b o di m e nt as a d u alit y r at h er t h a n d u alis m, a n d i n pr o vi di n g a n al yti c al p ossi biliti es f or st u d yi n g p oliti c al s u bj e cti vit y a n d a g e n c y as s o ci all y c o n diti o n e d h u m a n c a p a citi es. Al o n g wit h ot h ers w h o h a v e i d e ntifi e d s p e cifi c p ot e n- ti al i n Pl ess n er’s w or k r e g ar di n g e m b o di m e nt,

w e s e e t h at his p hil os o p hi c al i d e as off er o p p or- t u niti es t o d e v el o p n e w p ers p e cti v es o n t h e b o d y ( e. g. C o ol e n, 2 0 1 4; Dijst, 2 0 1 9; Er nst e, 2 0 0 4;

H e n k el, 2 0 1 8; K orf, 2 0 0 8; Kr u¨g er, 2 0 1 0).

I n t h e n e xt s e cti o n, w e i ntr o d u c e r es e ar c h t h at w e h a v e i d e ntifi e d as p erti n e nt t o t h e r ol e of e m b o di m e nt i n t h e c o nt e xt of as yl u m s e e k- i n g. W hil e i n s o m e st u di es t h e e m piri c al f o c us is sli g htl y diff er e nt fr o m o urs ( e. g. mi gr ati o n, m ulti c ult ur alis m, p o p ulis m, et h ni c dis cri mi n a- ti o n), t h e y all r es o n at e wit h o ur q u est t o u n d er- st a n d e m b o di e d p oliti c al a g e n c y n e g oti at e d i n r el ati o n t o g o v er ni n g. W e t h e n pr o vi d e a n i ntr o- d u cti o n t o Pl ess n er’s a p pr o a c h o n s o ci al e m b o- di m e nt. Aft er t h at, w e t ur n t o pr es e nti n g h o w t h e d u alit y i n his c o n c e pti o n of e m b o di m e nt, a n d t h e s u bs e q u e nt disti n cti o n b et w e e n b o di es a n d p ers o ns s e e n t hr o u g h t h e c o n c e pt u al l e ns of e m p at h y, h el ps t o t a k e f urt h er t h e or eti c al u n d er- st a n di n g of t h e p oliti cs of e m b o di e d e n c o u nt ers i n as yl u m s e e ki n g. I n c o n cl usi o n, w e m a k e s u g- g esti o ns o n t h e p ot e nti al of t his t h e or eti c al a p pr o a c h f or f urt h er r es e ar c h, as w ell as p ortr a y h o w it c a n p er h a ps b e br o u g ht t o i nf or m h u m a- nit ari a n pr a cti c es.

II E m b o di e d e n c o u nt e rs:

G o v e r ni n g a n d a g e n c y

‘ R ef u g e’ a n d ‘ as yl u m’ ar e c urr e ntl y l ar g el y u n d erst o o d as p oli c y- dri v e n c o n c e pts, wit h ori- gi ns i n t h e i nt er n ati o n al h u m a n ri g hts d e v el o p- m e nt f oll o wi n g t h e S e c o n d W orl d W ar.

M a nif est e d b y t h e est a blis h m e nt of t h e U nit e d

N ati o ns Hi g h C o m missi o n er f or R ef u g e es

( U N H C R) i n 1 9 5 0, c o m m o n r ef u g e e ri g hts ar e

a gr e e d u p o n b y t h e m aj orit y of c o u ntri es, a n d

t h e g o v er n a n c e of as yl u m s e e ki n g is i n cl u d e d i n

r e g ul ar st at e pr a cti c es.

W hil e t his h as cr e at e d

a n i nt er n ati o n al r ef u g e e r e gi m e, a n u m b er of

c o u ntri es r e m ai n n o n-si g n at or y a n d t h e a ct u al

p oli ci es a n d g o v er ni n g pr a cti c es v ar y i n diff er-

e nt p arts of t h e w orl d ( Gill, 2 0 1 0). W h at b ei n g a

r ef u g e e a n d s e e ki n g as yl u m m e a n, t h us, fl u ct u-

at es s p ati all y a n d t e m p o r all y, a n d r efl e cts a

d y n a mis m w h er e t h e a g e n c y of t h os e i n es c a p e f or ms a cr u ci al f a ct or i n t h e r e c o g niti o n of r ef u- g e e n ess as a s u bj e cti v e c o n diti o n a n d s o ci et al p ositi o n ( B ar n ett, 2 0 0 2; C h a p p ell, 1 9 9 9; D ar- li n g, 2 0 1 4). D uri n g t h e 2 0t h c e nt ur y, f or c e d mi gr ati o n h as b e c o m e pr e v al e nt a n d t h er e is n o w a gr o wi n g lit er at ur e t h at d e als wit h t h e g o v er ni n g – a g e n c y d y n a mi c, t hr o u g h w hi c h r ef u g e a n d as yl u m a c q uir e t h eir c o nt e xt u al m e a ni n gs.

A p art of t his r es e ar c h e m p h asi z es t h e si g nif- i c a n c e of e m b o di m e nt i n h o w r ef u g e e n ess is c o nstit ut e d. T his is t h e c as e i n st u di es t h at u n d erli n e h o w r ef u g e es ar e d es cri b e d a n d c o n- fr o nt e d as a f a c el ess m ass of b o di es wit h diff er- e n c es b et w e e n p e o pl e h a vi n g littl e m e a ni n g, or as ‘fl o o ds’ fl o wi n g wil dl y a n d al ar mi n gl y i nt o a n d o v er or g a ni z e d s o ci eti es ( e. g. M o u nt z, 2 0 0 4; P a p ast er gi a dis, 2 0 0 6; V a n H o ut u m, 2 0 1 0). Oft e n t h e a n o n y m o us fi g ur e of t h e r ef u- g e e is a m bi g u o us, c h ar a ct eri z e d o n t h e o n e h a n d b y vi cti m h o o d a n d o n t h e ot h er h a n d b y b o g us- n ess. I n m e di a t h e i d e a of a ‘ d es er vi n g r ef u g e e’

i n n e e d of c h arit y a n d pr ot e cti o n is c o nstr u e d t hr o u g h i m a g es t h at t ar g et vi cti mi z e d r ef u g e e b o di es, s u c h as t h e n o w-i c o ni c i m a g e of t w o- y e ar- ol d A yl a n K ur di (J o h ns o n, 2 0 1 6; s e e als o L e n ett e a n d Mis k o vi c, 2 0 1 8). As m er e b o di es, r ef u g e es a p p e ar li k e c hil dr e n c o m pl et el y d e p e n- d e nt o n a n d at t h e m er c y of t h eir c ar ers ( Br a d- l e y, 2 0 1 4; Ri v etti, 2 0 1 3).

A s h ar p disti n cti o n b et w e e n v ul n er a bl e vi c- ti ms a n d b o g us as yl u m s e e k ers a cts as t h e m or al b a c kr est t o t h e o p e nl y r a cist a g e n d a t h at e v e n- t u all y h as c o m e t o vi e w all r ef u g e es ‘fl o o di n g o ur c o u ntr y’ as b el o n gi n g t o t h e l att er gr o u p ( Kr z y_za n o ws ki, 2 0 1 8: 8 8). S o m eti m es t his is m a nif est e d i n e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n mi gr a nts a n d t h e l o c al p o p ul ati o n, ‘ p erf or m e d, pr a cti c e d a n d (r e) n e g oti at e d i n d ail y lif e’ ( H al dr u p et al., 2 0 0 6: 1 7 5). E x pli cit f o c us o n t h e c or p or e al d y n a mi cs, t hr o u g h w hi c h ot h eri n g u nf ol ds, bri n gs t h e di m e nsi o n of b o dil y o bj e ctifi c ati o n f or c ef ull y t o t h e f or e ( B urr ell a n d H o¨rs c h el- m a n n, 2 0 1 9; D o bs o n, 2 0 0 4; E hr k a m p a n d

N a g el, 2 0 1 4; Si m o ns e n, 2 0 1 3). T o n es of v oi c e t h at r e n d er r ef u g e es as a m ass of b o di es h a v e als o b e e n i d e ntifi e d i n s u pr a- n ati o n al p oli c y- m a ki n g a n d st at e pr a cti c es i n c o nt e xts r a n gi n g fr o m E ur o p e, t o t h e U S, A ustr ali a, T ur k e y, S a u di Ar a bi a a n d b e y o n d ( A bi d et al., 2 0 1 7;

B etti ni, 2 0 1 3; Ess es et al., 2 0 1 3; G a bri el at os a n d B a k er, 2 0 0 8; Pi c k eri n g, 2 0 0 1; S c h e el, 2 0 1 3). I n d e e d, r es e ar c h o n t h e g o v er n m e nt of f or c e d mi gr ati o n r e v e als t h at g o v er ni n g pr a c- ti c es w or k r el e ntl essl y t o c o nt ai n, c o ntr ol a n d or g a ni z e w h er e, a n d t h e m a n n er i n w hi c h, r ef u- g e es m a y a p p e ar i n t h e r e al m of si g nifi c ati o n as w ell as p h ysi c all y o n t h e b or d ers a n d str e ets of t h e s o ci eti es t h e y s e e k as yl u m fr o m ( E hr k a m p, 2 0 1 9; H y n d m a n, 1 9 9 7; M o u nt z, 2 0 1 1 b; Ri d g- l e y, 2 0 0 8; S p at h o p o ul o u a n d C ar ast at his, 2 0 2 0;

T esf a h u n e y, 1 9 9 8).

T h e pr a cti c es a n d sit u ati o ns w h er e r ef u g e es a ct u all y m e et wit h t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e h a v e b e e n st u di e d wit h att e nti o n t o t h e r ol e of e m b o- di m e nt i n s u c h e n c o u nt ers. F or S c h e el ( 2 0 1 3:

2 7 9) t h e r ef u g e e b o d y li es at t h e n e x us b et w e e n

‘ b or d er r e gi m es t h at tr y t o r e n d er mi gr a nts’ b o d- i es as a m e a ns of m o bilit y c o ntr ol’ a n d t h e v er y pr a cti c es t hr o u g h w hi c h p e o pl e s e e k t o a p pr o- pri at e m o bilit y ( als o K alli o et al., 2 0 1 9). A m o n g t h e m ost c h ar g e d p oi nts of c o nt a ct i n t his r e g ar d is t h e st at us d et er mi n ati o n i nt er vi e w w h er e t h e pr o d u cti o n, m a n a g e m e nt a n d a p pr o pri ati o n of k n o wl e d g e, or r at h er diff er e nt ki n ds of k n o wl- e d g es, is p art of h o w r ef u g e es ar e g o v er n e d. F or t h e r e pr es e nt ati v es of as yl u m i nstit uti o ns, it is d e cisi v e t o b e a bl e t o d efi n e t h e n at ur e of t h eir o w n a n d r ef u g e es’ k n o wl e d g e t o fit t h e e x p e c- t ati o ns of t h e as yl u m ass ess m e nt a n d d e cisi o n m a ki n g. T o t his e n d, i nstit uti o n al k n o wl e d g e is d e e m e d o bj e cti v e a n d t h us dis e m b o di e d fr o m c o nt e xt, w hil e t h e r ef u g e es’ k n o wl e d g e is s e e n as s u bj e cti v e, e m b o di e d a n d b as e d o n t h eir first- h a n d e x p eri e n c es o nl y (J e ns e n, 2 0 1 8; K o b e- li ns k y, 2 0 1 9; K y nsil e ht o a n d P u u m al a, 2 0 1 5;

P u u m al a a n d K y nsil e ht o, 2 0 1 6). I n t his s e ns e

r ef u g e es’ o w n s p e e c h m a y e n d u p b ei n g t h e

l e ast c o n vi n ci n g f or m of k n o wl e d g e, al w a ys

p ot e nti all y c orr u pt e d b y t h e e n d e a v or t o b e r e c o g ni z e d as a r ef u g e e ( F assi n a n d d’ H all ui n, 2 0 0 5; M c G h e e, 2 0 0 0; H a¨ kli et al., 2 0 1 7). M or e- o v er, t h e b o d y its elf ( e. g. t hr o u g h tr a c es of vi o- l e n c e), a n d m e di c al a n d ps y c h ol o gi c al k n o wl e d g e a b o ut t h e b o d y ( e. g. st at e m e nts, e x a mi n ati o ns, ass ess m e nt), oft e n pr o vi d e m or e p o w erf ul pr o of a b o ut a d missi bl e v ul n er a bilit y t h a n o n e’s o w n v oi c e d e x pr essi o ns (s e e als o J aji, 2 0 0 9; R aj ar a m, 2 0 0 2; P u u m al a et al., 2 0 1 8; T o mli ns o n a n d E g a n, 2 0 0 2).

I n r ef u g e e c a m ps a n d as yl u m c e nt ers r ef u- g e es c o nfr o nt str o n g att e m pts t o r e d u c e t h eir a g e n c y a n d sil e n c e its p oliti c al el e m e nts t hr o u g h b o dil y c o nt ai n m e nt t h at m a k es t h e s u b- j e ct p assi v e a n d dis e m p o w er e d ( D arli n g, 2 0 1 4;

Mill n er, 2 0 1 1; R a m a d a n, 2 0 1 3; S p at h o p o ul o u a n d C ar ast at his, 2 0 2 0). I n e xtr e m e sit u ati o ns, ( p oliti c al) a g e n c y as a h u m a n c a p a cit y m a y c e as e t o e xist al m ost c o m pl et el y – a d e v el o p- m e nt d es cri b e d as s u bj e ctifi c ati o n b y t h os e f ol- l o wi n g a F o u c a ul di a n r e a di n g ( e. g. A ns e ms d e Vri es, 2 0 1 6; F assi n a n d d’ H all ui n, 2 0 0 5; Gill, 2 0 0 9; P u g gi o ni, 2 0 1 4), a n d as b ar e lif e i n A g a m b e n’s t er ms ( e. g. D arli n g, 2 0 0 9; Di k e n, 2 0 0 4; Di n es et al., 2 0 1 5; M arti n, 2 0 1 5). Y et as yl u m s e e k ers ar e n ot p o w erl ess i n t h es e sit u a- ti o ns if w e c o nsi d er d o mi n ati o n a n d r esist a n c e i n a F o u c a ul di a n s e ns e as al w a ys c o u pl e d a n d c o- c o nstit uti v e. W hil e t h eir p ossi biliti es t o a ct ar e oft e n f ar fr o m ‘ m a nif est ati o ns of h er oi c r esist a n c e’ a n d cl os er t o p oliti c al pr a cti c es of c o u nt er- c o n d u ct wit h ‘ p ot e nti all y tr a nsf or m a- ti v e p o w er’, as C o nl o n ( 2 0 1 3: 1 3 6) ar g u es, it is e vi d e nt t h at t h e pr a cti c es t hr o u g h w hi c h as y- l u m s e e ki n g is g o v er n e d r efl e ct ( e x pli citl y or i m pli citl y) t h e p o w er v est e d i n r ef u g e es’ e m b o- di e d pr es e n c e ( S c h e el, 2 0 1 3; Si g v ar ds d ott er, 2 0 1 3; A ns e ms d e Vri es, 2 0 1 6).

O n e f or m of pr ot est, wit h e m b o di m e nt i n a p arti c ul arl y e m p h asi z e d r ol e, is a g e n c y gr o wi n g fr o m ulti m at e d es p er ati o n i n d e h u m a nizi n g sit u ati o ns ( Fis k e, 2 0 1 6). I n t h es e c as es, r ef u g e es t y pi c all y us e t h eir b o di es as t h e m ess e n g er a n d t h e m ess a g e w h e n t h e y h a v e littl e ot h er a g e nti al

m e a ns l eft. B a n u B ar g u ( 2 0 1 7) dir e cts att e nti o n t o w h at B e hr m a n ( 2 0 1 4) c alls ‘ d es p er at e t a cti cs’

a n d R aff a el a P u g gi o ni ( 2 0 1 4) ‘ e xtr e m e g es- t ur es’, t w o f or ms of e m b o di e d a g e n c y t h at r ef- u g e es i n diff er e nt p arts of t h e w orl d e m pl o y as t h eir fi n al cr y: h u n g er stri ki n g a n d li p s e wi n g. I n b ot h c as es, t h e att e m pt is t o dr a w p u bli c att e n- ti o n t o t h e i n h u m a n e tr e at m e nt of r ef u g e es, t o a p p e al t o p oli c y m a k ers a n d p u bli c a d mi nistr a- ti o n f or c h a n g es, a n d t o cl ai m ri g hts t o b e r e c o g- ni z e d as r ef u g e es wit h h u m a n ri g hts – all c o m m o n el e m e nts i n r ef u g e e a cti vis m a n d pr o- t est ( C o nl o n, 2 0 1 3; O w e ns, 2 0 0 9). M or e o v er, E d ki ns a n d Pi n- F at ( 2 0 0 5) ar e ri g ht t o p oi nt o ut t h at b y usi n g t h eir b o di es, r ef u g e es ar e a bl e t o e x pr ess t h at w hi c h c a n n ot b e s p o k e n or is u ns a y- a bl e, t h us r ef usi n g e n g a g e m e nt wit h t h e l a n- g u a g e of t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e a n d c ar vi n g s p a c e f or a p oliti c al r el ati o ns hi p.

Y et t h ere is s o m et hi n g s pecific i n t h ese f or ms of p oliti cal a g e nc y. O ne c a n call t h e m p erf or ma- ti v e a cts, as Mi c h ell e Pf eif er ( 2 0 1 8) d o es, t o u n d erli n e t hat r ef u ge es st a g e t h eir b o dil y s el v es t o b e g aze d at, wit h t h e h o pe t hat s o me o n e mi g ht fi n all y c o nsi d er t h eir s u b or di n ati n g p ositi o ns u na cce pta ble a n d s al va g e t h e m, r at her t h a n all o w t h e m t o p eris h. S elf- h ar m e d b o dies c a n als o be u n d erst o o d as ‘ p o werf ul t o ols’, as i n P u g gi o ni ( 2 0 1 4), or ‘c o u nter he ge m o nic ta ctics [ ... ] m at e- ri al a n d s y m b olic a cts of d efi a n ce’, as fra me d b y Gill et al. ( 2 0 1 4: 3 7 5), e x p osi n g t h e f a ct t h at ref u g ees are a bl e t o use t heir b o di es f or cef ull y t o resist g o ver ni n g f orc es. F or us t hes e a cts s p ea k of a p artic ul ar w a y of c o nfr o nti n g mi grati o n c o n- tr ol wit h e m b o di m e nt at its c ore – a n as pe ct t h at w e disc uss f urt h er t o w ar d t he e n d of t h e p a p er.

Fi n all y, e m b o di e d r ef u g e e a g e n c y h as als o

b e e n e x pli citl y t a k e n u p i n r es e ar c h f o c usi n g

o n t h e ‘ e n d of a g e n c y’, t h at is, w h e n p e o pl e’s

a cti viti es di mi nis h t o m er e e n d ur a n c e, t h e y l os e

t h eir z est f or lif e, a n d m a y s e e k t o h ar m t h e m-

s el v es or e n d t h eir li v es ( B o d e g a˚r d, 2 0 0 5; V o n

F ols a c h a n d M o nt g o m er y, 2 0 0 6). S u c h wit h-

dr a w al h as r e c e ntl y b e e n f o u n d a m o n g a d ol es-

c e nt d et ai n e es o n t h e Mi cr o n esi a n isl a n d of

N a ur u, t estif yi n g t o t h e f a ct t h at s elf- h ar mi n g a n d s ui ci d al b e h a vi or is m or e c o m m o n a m o n g d et ai n e d as yl u m s e e k ers ( C o h e n, 2 0 0 8; D u dl e y, 2 0 0 3; M c C all, 2 0 1 8). H er e t h e b o d y is n ot us e d t o c o n v e y a m ess a g e, b ut i nst e a d it s e e ms t o t ur n a g ai nst o n es elf. H e n c e t h e p oliti c al di m e nsi o ns of s u c h e m b o di e d sit u ati o ns b uil d m ai nl y t hr o u g h h o w i nstit uti o ns r es p o n d t o r ef u g e es w h o ar e n o l o n g er c o m m u ni c ati n g b y a n yt hi n g els e b ut t h eir d et eri or ati n g b o di es.

All t h es e w or ks ar e h el pf ul f or u n d erst a n di n g t h e e nt wi n e m e nt of g o v er ni n g a n d a g e n c y i n t h e r ef u g e e c o nt e xt: h o w as yl u m s e e k ers, as e m b o- di e d s u bj e cts, e n c o u nt er p oli ci es a n d dis c o urs es t h at s e e k t o r e d u c e t h e m i nt o g o v er n a bl e b o di es, a n d w h at f or ms of e m b o di e d a g e n c y , if a n y, t h e y ar e a bl e t o n e g oti at e i n r el ati o n t o g o v er ni n g.

H o w e v er, w e f e el t h at w h at is l ar g el y missi n g i n t h e e xisti n g s c h ol ars hi p is a d e e p er u n d er- st a n di n g of w h y mi gr ati o n r e gi m es ar e s o pr e- o c c u pi e d wit h t h e r ef u g e e b o d y t h at t h e y alr e a d y g o v er n i n s o m a n y w a ys, as t h e lit er a- t ur e cl e arl y s h o ws. W h y is it, i n ot h er w or ds, t h at t h e oft e n r esi d u al a n d w e a k f or ms of e m b o- di e d a g e n c y a p p e ar t o pr o vi d e as yl u m s e e k ers wit h r es o ur c es t h at c all f or s u c h p o w erf ul ‘ p oli- ci n g a n d c o nt ai n m e nt’ ( M o u nt z a n d L o y d, 2 0 1 4: 1 7 6) ? T o a c c o u nt f or t h es e q u esti o ns, t h at c e nt er o n t h e criti c al r ol e t h at t h e b o d y pl a ys i n t h e p oliti cs of e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e a n d r ef u g e es, w e t ur n t o a d diti o n al c o n- c e pt u al r es o ur c es i n H el m ut h Pl ess n er’s p hil o- s o p hi c al a nt hr o p ol o g y, a n d p arti c ul arl y t h e s o p histi c at e d u n d erst a n di n g of e m b o di m e nt t h at it off ers. W e b e gi n wit h a bri ef i ntr o d u cti o n t o Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht a n d t h e n m o v e o n t o d e v el- o pi n g o ur o w n a p pr o a c h o n e m b o di m e nt i n t h e e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n r ef u g e es a n d t h e r e gi m es s e e ki n g t o r e g ul at e t h eir m o bilit y.

III Pl ess n e r’s i n q ui r y i nt o s o ci al e m b o di m e nt

W hil e H el m ut h Pl ess n er’s p hil os o p hi c al a nt hr o- p ol o g y h as r e c e ntl y st art e d t o attr a ct a gr o wi n g

i nt er est a cr oss t h e s o ci al s ci e n c es ( D e M ul, 2 0 1 4 a; D o b es o n, 2 0 1 8; Er nst e, 2 0 0 4; H o n e n- b er g er, 2 0 1 5; Kr u¨g er, 2 0 1 0), it is f air t o s a y t h at his t h o u g ht h as hit h ert o b e e n l ar g el y n e gl e ct e d i n t h e A n gl o p h o ni c w orl d. A pr olifi c writ er a n d hi g hl y ori gi n al t hi n k er, his t h o u g ht o n t h e h u m a n c o n diti o n a n d p ositi o ni n g i n t h e w orl d h as f o u n d d e e p r es o n a n c es wit h a n u m b er of d e b at es t h at c e nt er o n t h e cl assi c al q u esti o n of w h at is t h e h u m a n ( H e n k el, 2 0 1 8; H a¨ kli, 2 0 1 8;

K orf, 2 0 0 8; P u gli es e, 2 0 1 6). As a r e c e nt c oll e c- ti o n of ess a ys o n Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht r e v e als, t h es e q u esti o ns r a n g e fr o m i d e as of b ei n g ( e. g.

Fis c h er, 2 0 1 4; Kr u¨g er, 2 0 1 4) t o t h os e arisi n g fr o m ( bi o)t e c h n ol o gi c al m e di ati o ns t h at r e w or k t h es e i d e as ( D e M ul, 2 0 1 4 b; S pr e e n, 2 0 1 4). It is h ar dl y s ur prisi n g, t h e n, t h at as v ari o us p ost h u- m a nist p hil os o p hi es ar e n o w pr o p osi n g t o s hift pr of o u n dl y o ur w a ys of t hi n ki n g a b o ut h u m a n a g e n c y a n d p ositi o ni n g i n r el ati o n t o t h e n at ur al w orl d (J or o n e n a n d H a¨ kli, 2 0 1 7), Pl ess n er’s p hil os o p hi c al a nt hr o p ol o g y is g ai ni n g n e w c ur- r e n c y, b o ost e d f urt h er b y t h e l o n g- e x p e ct e d tr a nsl ati o n of his m aj or w or ks i nt o E n glis h ( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 8, 2 0 1 9).

P er h a ps t h e m ost ori gi n al as p e ct of Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht is his i nsist e n c e o n t h e n e e d t o r ef or m u- l at e t h e q u esti o n of b ei n g as a h u m a n attri b ut e.

W h er e as t h e criti q u es of C art esi a n c o n c e pti o ns

of t h e b o d y/ mi n d d u alis m h a v e t e n d e d t o l e a d

eit h er t o t h e n at ur alisti c d e- diff er e nti ati o n of

h u m a ns fr o m t h e p h ysi c al w orl d, or t o t h e c o n-

str u cti o nist r e d u cti o nis m of n at ur e t o si g nifi c a-

ti o n ( D all m a yr, 1 9 7 4; D o b es o n, 2 0 1 8), Pl ess n er

( 2 0 1 9) c ar ef ull y s hifts t h e gr o u n d b e n e at h t h e

q u esti o n b y pl a ci n g h u m a ns i nt o a c o nti n u u m,

r at h er t h a n a r el ati o ns hi p, wit h or g a ni c n at ur e

( Gr e n e, 1 9 6 6; H e n k el, 2 0 1 8). T his h e d o es b y

a p pr o a c hi n g t h e q u esti o n of b ei n g fr o m t h e

p oi nt of vi e w of a n or g a nis m’s r el ati o n t o its

e n vir o n m e nt, m e di at e d b y t h e b o d y as its

b o u n d ar y a n d i nt erf a c e. R efr a m e d as a q u esti o n

of p ositi o n alit y , Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 9) is a bl e t o

a d dr ess all li vi n g or g a nis ms t hr o u g h t y p es of

diff er e n c es i n t h eir e x c h a n g es wit h t h eir

e n vir o n m e nt, r a n gi n g fr o m d e p e n d e n c y i n t h e c as e of i m m o bil e pl a nts wit h a n o p e n f or m of or g a ni z ati o n, t o t h e r el ati v e a ut o n o m y of h u m a ns a n d n o n- h u m a n a ni m als wit h a cl os e d f or m of or g a ni z ati o n t h at e n a bl es m o v e m e nt.

B y t h e ori zi n g t h es e diff er e n c es ‘ o utsi d e t h e a nt hr o p ol o gi c al cir cl e’ ( Kr u¨g er, 2 0 1 0: 2 5 9), h e als o cir c u m v e nts a n y c at e g ori c al n oti o ns of h u m a n e x c e pti o n alis m, w hil e n e v ert h el ess s h o wi n g h o w h u m a ns’ b ei n g i n a n d r el ati n g wit h t h e w orl d diff ers fr o m t h e e xist e n c e of n o n- h u m a n or g a nis ms. Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 9: 2 8 6) c o nt e n ds t h at w hil e ‘ all li vi n g b ei n g st a n ds i n a r el ati o ns hi p- wit h – t h at is, i n a r el ati o n of a c c o m p a ni m e nt [ Mit g e h e n ], c o e xist e n c e [N e b e- n ei n a n d er ], a n d c o o p er ati o n [Mit ei n a n d er ] [ .. . ] t h e h u m a n h as a tr u e r el ati o ns hi p- a g ai nst [G e g e n v er h a¨lt nis]’ t h at is s p e cifi c t o h u m a n lif e. T h us, i n c o ntr ast t o m u c h c o nt e m p or ar y p ost h u m a nist t h o u g ht, Pl ess n er off ers a n affir- m ati v e d efi niti o n of h u m a ns as a v er y p arti c ul ar p art of n at ur e, y et wit h o ut l a psi n g i nt o c at e g o- ri c al a nt hr o p o c e ntris m ( P u gli es e, 2 0 1 6).

O ur dis c ussi o n of Pl ess n er’s p hil os o p hi c al a nt hr o p ol o g y c a n n ot pr et e n d t o d o j usti c e t o t h e br e a dt h of his m eti c ul o usl y ar g u e d a n d c o m pl e x t h o u g ht. W e t h er ef or e f o c us h er e s el e cti v el y o n h o w Pl ess n er vi e ws h u m a n e m b o di m e nt i n t er ms of his i d e as o n p ositi o n alit y. O n a p ar wit h n o n- h u m a n a ni m als, h u m a ns b ot h h a v e t h eir b o d y ( K o¨ r p er ) a n d ar e t h eir b o d y (L ei b ) t hr o u g h w hi c h t h e y i nt er a ct wit h t h eir e n vir o n m e nt as c e ntri c b ei n gs. F or n o n- h u m a n a ni m als, t h e d u alit y of h a vi n g a n d b ei n g a b o d y is a n u n pr o- bl e m ati c a n d i nsti n cti v e p art of t h eir c o n c e ntri c pr a xis f ull y a bs or b e d i nt o t h e u bi q uit o us h er e- a n d- n o w: ‘ T h e a ni m al st a n ds i n t his r el ati o n, b ut d o es n ot gr a s p it’ ( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 9: 2 8 5).

H u m a ns c ulti v at e a s e c o n d m e di ati n g r el ati o n- s hi p t o t his d u al b o dil y b ei n g, n a m el y a n a w ar e- n ess of a n d r efl e xi v e r el ati o ns hi p t o b ot h h a vi n g a b o d y ( as a n o bj e ct) a n d b ei n g a (li v e d) b o d y.

F or Pl ess n er t his p ositi o n al diff er e n c e is a r a d- i c al disti n cti o n b ut n ot a v al u e j u d g e m e nt; w hil e t h e r efl e xi v e ‘r el ati o ns hi p- a g ai nst’ is n ot

a v ail a bl e f or n o n- h u m a n a ni m als, s o als o h u m a ns h a v e n o a c c ess t o a ni m als’ p ur el y i m m e di at e ‘r el ati o ns hi p- wit h’.

F or Pl ess n er ( 1 9 7 5: 3 6 5), t h e h u m a n b ei n g ‘is a b o d y, is i n its b o d y, a n d at t h e s a m e ti m e o utsi d e its b o d y as t h e p ers p e cti v e, fr o m w hi c h it is b ot h’. T his t hr e ef ol d sit u ati o n Pl ess n er ( 1 9 7 0) c alls e x c e ntri c p ositi o n alit y (E xz e n- tris c h e P ositi o n alit a¨t), r ef erri n g t o t h e f u n d a- m e nt al a m bi g uit y of h u m a n e xist e n c e t h at f oll o ws fr o m l a c ki n g t h e p ossi bilit y of u n pr o- bl e m ati c a bs or pti o n i n t h e e n vir o n m e nt (i n t h e s e ns e of a n e c ol o gi c al ni c h e, f or e x a m pl e).

I nst e a d, t h e h u m a n is ‘ h o m el ess, h e m ust [ . .. ] cr e at e his o w n e q uili bri u m’ ( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 9: 2 8 8), t h at is, c o nst a ntl y p ositi o n o n es elf i n s u bj e cti v e, p h ysi c al a n d s o ci al w orl ds as a p ers o n – as t h e i nt ers u bj e cti v el y c o nstit uti n g s u bj e ct of o n e’s o w n e x p eri e n c e

( Pl ess n er, 1 9 6 9, 1 9 7 5). As a p ers o n, ‘t h e h u m a n d o es n ot si m pl y li v e [ . .. as] h e h as t o first m a k e hi ms elf i nt o w h at h e alr e a d y is, t o l e a d t h e lif e h e li v es’

( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 9: 2 8 8). E x a ctl y t his ‘ e x c e ntri c f or m of p ositi o n alit y gi v es ris e t o t h e s h ar e d- w orl dli n ess or s o ci alit y of t h e h u m a n, m a k es hi m a z o o n p oliti k o n’ ( p. 3 0 0). H o m el ess n ess, t h us, is n ot a r o m a nti c e xist e nti al c o n diti o n, b ut a k e y t o h u m a n hist ori cit y a n d s o ci alit y t h at gr o u n ds e m b o di m e nt a n d p ers o n h o o d as f u n d a- m e nt all y s o ci al n oti o ns.

I m p ort a ntl y f or o ur p ur p os es, e x c e ntri c p osi- ti o n alit y m a nif ests its elf i n t h e u n e n di n g n e e d f or h u m a ns t o r e c o n cil e t h e ms el v es b et w e e n e xist e n c e as t h e s u bj e cti v e b o d y a n d b o d y o bj e ct. Pl ess n er ( 1 9 7 0: 3 6 – 7) writ es t h at ‘ m a n c a n c o m e t o n o d e cisi o n b et w e e n t h es e t w o or d ers [ b ut . .. ] m ust n e v ert h el ess fi n d a r el a- ti o n t o t h e m. F or h e is t ot all y m er g e d i n n eit h er.’

H e n c e, h u m a ns ar e f at e d t o a d y n a mi c m o v e-

m e nt b et w e e n t h es e t w o m o d aliti es of e m b o di-

m e nt, st e m mi n g fr o m t h e r efl e xi vit y t hr o u g h

w hi c h p e o pl e at o n c e e x p eri e n c e t h e ms el v es

as a s elf a n d o bj e ctif y t h e ms el v es as a t hi n g

a m o n g ot h er t hi n gs. T his ‘ d u al as p e ct’ of e m b o-

di e d b ei n g s ets Pl ess n er’s ( 2 0 1 9: 2 7 3) t h o u g ht

a p art fr o m M erl e a u- P o nt y’s ( 1 9 6 2) p h e n o m e n- ol o g y of t h e b o d y w h er e, a c c or di n g t o C o ol e n ( 2 0 1 4: 1 1 6), t h e b o d y t e n ds t o r e m ai n ‘ c o m- pl et el y o n t h e si d e of t h e p er c ei v er [ . .. wit h]

a n i n cli n ati o n t o o v er e m p h asi z e t h e li vi n g b o d y (L ei b ) at t h e c ost of t h e b o d y as a t hi n g (K o¨ r p er)’. Wit h e vi d e nt p ar all els t o M erl e a u- P o nt y, Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht diff ers pr e cis el y i n its i nsist e n c e o n t h e i m p ort a n c e of h o w h u m a ns, as p ers o ns, p erf or m a n d a c c o m plis h t h e u nit y of t h e c or p or e al a n d li v e d b o d y ( Kr u¨g er, 2 0 1 0).

It is t h e u n d erst a n di n g of t his i nt ert wi n e d d y n a- mis m t h at w e wis h t o a d o pt fr o m Pl ess n er’s ori gi n al t hi n ki n g a b o ut h u m a n e m b o di m e nt a n d its r el ati o ns hi p wit h p ers o n h o o d, w h er e m e a n- i n gf ul t h e or eti c al n oti o ns ar e t h e r efl e xi v e d u a- lit y of s u bj e cti v e a n d o bj e cti v e b o d y ( L ei b/

K o¨ r p er) a n d t h e i d e a a c c or di n g t o w hi c h it is i n lif e as p ers o ns t h at h u m a ns a c c o m plis h t h e t as k of i nt e gr ati n g t h es e t w o m o d es of e m b o di m e nt.

R efl e xi vit y stri ps h u m a ns fr o m t h e p ossi bil- it y of m er gi n g, o n c e a n d f or all, t h eir li v e d a n d p h ysi c al b o d y, t h us d e m a n di n g us c o nst a ntl y t o s ettl e t h e a m bi g uit y of b ei n g a n d h a vi n g a b o d y.

Y et, p e o pl e b e c o m e e x pli citl y a w ar e of t his d u a- lit y o nl y i n c ert ai n o c c asi o ns. As Pl ess n er ( 1 9 7 0: 3 7) p uts it, ‘i n t h e n or m al c o urs e of lif e, wit h its att a c h m e nt t o a c c ust o m e d g o als, t his pr ess ur e f or r e c o n cili ati o n is n ot c o ns pi c u o us’.

W e n or m all y e n g a g e wit h e m b o di e d a g e n c y eff ortl essl y a n d, as p ers o ns, e n a ct o ur b o d y ‘ as a gr as pi n g, t hr usti n g, s u p p orti n g, a n d c o n v e yi n g or g a n, as a m e a ns of l o c o m oti o n, as a m e a ns of si g n ali n g, as t h e s o u n di n g b o ar d of e m oti o ns’

( Pl ess n er, 1 9 7 0: 3 4). ‘I n u n us u al sit u ati o ns, o n t h e ot h er h a n d, [t h e r e c o n cili ati o n b et w e e n h a v- i n g a b o d y a n d b ei n g o n e] m e ets wit h diffi c ul- ti es.’ W h e n i nt err u pt e d i n o ur r o uti n e s, d e m a n d e d t o e n g a g e i n u n a c c ust o m e d a cti vit y, or p us h e d o ut of b al a n c e f or o n e or a n ot h er r e a- s o n, w e b e c o m e a w ar e of o ur ‘r el ati o n t o t h e b o d y’ ( Pl ess n er, 1 9 7 0: 3 7). F or e x a m pl e, w h e n w al ki n g i n a cit y, a p ers o n m a y r e ali z e t h at s h e h as e nt er e d a n u nf a mili ar mili e u w h er e s h e

a p p e ars n ot t o b el o n g. C as u al w al ki n g t h e n s u d- d e nl y t ur ns i nt o m o v e m e nt o n t h e str e et as a b o d y o bj e ct t h at st a n ds o ut as if i n t h e e y es of e v er y o n e els e pr es e nt. P assi n g o n t o a f a mili ar p art of t h e cit y, s u c h pr o n o u n c e d b o dil y e xis- t e n c e a g ai n f a d es i nt o r o uti n e str olli n g.

As ‘t h e h u m a n w a y t o b e is s o i ntri c at el y i nt ert wi n e d wit h t h e h u m a n or g a nis m’, t h e b o d y is n ot o nl y t h e m e di u m of o ur a g e n c y b ut als o t h e l o c us of o ur f u n d a m e nt al v ul n er a bilit y as p ers o ns ( Pl ess n er, 1 9 6 9: 4 9 9; s e e als o V a n Gr u ns v e n, 2 0 1 4; T ol o n e, 2 0 1 4). T his i nsi g ht, w e ar g u e, is hi g hl y c o ns e q u e nti al f or o ur eff orts t o u n d erst a n d p oliti c al lif e i n pr e c ari o us lif e sit u ati o ns, s u c h as as yl u m s e e ki n g. T h es e i n v ol v e e n c o u nt ers w h er e p e o pl e wis h t o b e m et as p ers o ns b ut ar e li k el y t o fi n d t h eir p ers o n h o o d di mi nis h e d i n pr a cti c es r el at e d t o mi gr ati o n c o ntr ol, as w ell as i n m or e m u n d a n e c o nt a cts.

T o c o n c e pt u ali z e e m b o di e d p oliti cs i n s u c h e n c o u nt ers, i n t h e n e xt s e cti o n w e o utli n e a t h e- or eti c al a p pr o a c h b as e d o n o ur r e a di n g of Pl ess- n er’s t h e or y of s o ci al e m b o di m e nt.

I V E m b o di m e nt a n d e m p at h y i n as yl u m e n c o u nt e rs

I n o ur r es e ar c h wit h r ef u g e es, w e h a v e f o u n d t h at v ul n er a bilit y as s u c h d o es n ot n e c ess aril y e nt ail t h e l a c k of c a p a citi es f or p oliti c al a g e n c y.

O v ert p oliti c al pr ot esti n g, s u c h as sit-i ns a n d

d e m o nstr ati o ns, is a c as e i n p oi nt, b ut w e ar g u e

t h at it is i m p ort a nt als o t o n oti c e m or e s u btl e

f or ms of a g e n c y t h at m a y r e m ai n c o n c e al e d b y

t h eir e m b e d d e d n ess i n t h e e v er y d a y a n d w h at is

e x p eri e n c e d o nl y m o m e nt aril y a n d tr a nsit oril y

( e. g. E hr k a m p, 2 0 1 7; G o¨ k ari ks el a n d S e c or,

2 0 1 8; H u g h es, 2 0 1 6; Ott oss o n et al., 2 0 1 7). K e y

h er e, w e c o nt e n d, is s e nsiti vit y t o p oliti c al s u b-

j e cti vit y t h at w e c o n c e pt u ali z e as t h e dist a n c e

b et w e e n p e o pl e’s s e ns e of s elf a n d t h e s o ci al

i d e ntiti es t hr o u g h w hi c h t h e y r el at e wit h t h eir

w orl ds ( H a¨ kli a n d K alli o, 2 0 1 4, 2 0 1 8; K alli o

a n d H a¨ kli, 2 0 1 7; M o u nt z, 2 0 1 1 a; Witt e b or n,

2 0 1 5). It is pr e cis el y t h e a bilit y t o e x p eri e n c e

a r el ati o n t o off er e d s u bj e ct p ositi o ns – eit h er a c c e pti n g, a v erti n g or r e n e g oti ati n g t h e m – t h at a ni m at es p oliti c al s u bj e cti viti es. As w e h a v e s h o w n els e w h er e, t his is t h e c as e als o wit h v ar- i o us c h ar g e d a n d c o nt est e d s u bj e ct p ositi o ns r el at e d t o as yl u m s e e ki n g ( H a¨ kli et al., 2 0 1 7;

K alli o et al., 2 0 1 9; K alli o a n d H a¨ kli, 2 0 1 9).

A m o n g as yl u m s e e k ers, t h er e is a gr e at d e al of att e nti v e n ess t o p o w er r el ati o ns v est e d i n t h e

‘fi g ur e of t h e r ef u g e e’, a n d i n p arti c ul ar, t h e e x p e ct ati o ns of w h at is r e q uir e d fr o m p ot e nti al r ef u g e es ( L a cr oi x, 2 0 0 4; L u k er, 2 0 1 5).

L e a ni n g o n H el m ut h Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht, w e h er e a d dr ess e m b o di m e nt as a k e y di m e nsi o n i n t his i nt ers u bj e cti v e p oliti c al d y n a mis m. Si g nif- i c a nt i n a n y s o ci al i nt er a cti o n b et w e e n h u m a n s u bj e cts, t h e b o d y pl a ys a p arti c ul arl y i m p ort a nt r ol e i n t h e hi er ar c hi c al e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n r ef- u g e es a n d r e gi m es g o v er ni n g mi gr ati o n. T h e str ess Pl ess n er ( 1 9 7 0, 1 9 7 5) pl a c es o n r efl e xi v- it y i n t h e c o nstit uti o n of h u m a n s elf-i m a g e a n d pr a cti c al ori e nt ati o n t o t h e w orl d c a n b e us ef ull y li n k e d wit h t h e i d e a of t h e b o d y as a s o ur c e a n d o bj e ct of i nt uiti v e att e nti v e n ess or e x pli cit a w ar e n ess of p ositi o n alit y i n s u c h e n c o u nt ers ( H e n k el, 2 0 1 8). T o t his e n d, w e pr o p os e t h at t h er e is a p oliti cs of e n c o u nt ers c e nt er e d o n t h e b o d y at pl a y i n as yl u m s e e ki n g, a n d t h at it is p ossi bl e, i n d e e d criti c al, t o st u d y h o w it u nf ol ds fr o m t h e p oi nt of vi e w of b ot h g o v er n a n c e a n d a g e n c y.

T o a p pr o a c h t his p oliti cs of e n c o u nt ers, w e b e gi n fr o m Pl ess n er’s i d e a of p ers o n h o o d as t h e m o d e of b ei n g i n w hi c h p e o pl e r el ati v el y u n pr o- bl e m ati c all y b ot h ar e a n d h a v e t h eir b o di es, y et wit h o ut t h e p ossi bilit y t o e v er s ettl e t h e d y n a- mis m t h at t his d u alit y e nt ails. T his as p e ct of Pl ess n er’s t h o u g ht p ar all els Gi or gi o A g a m b e n’s ( 2 0 1 6) i d e a of ‘ mi d dl e v oi c e’ ( n eit h er a cti v e n or p assi v e m o d e of a g e n c y) as t h e r el ati o n, or a

‘ z o n e of i n d et er mi n ati o n [ . .. ] b et w e e n t h e s u b- j e ct a n d t h e pr o c ess of w hi c h it is b ot h t h e a g e nt a n d t h e sit e’ ( A g a m b e n, 2 0 1 4: 6 8). Tr a ci n g t h e i d e a of s u bj e cti vit y b e y o n d est a blis h e d p osi- ti o ns, i d e ntiti es a n d r ol es, h e p oi nts at t his

i n d et er mi n a c y as t h e c o n diti o n of p ossi bilit y t o t hi n k h u m a n e xist e n c e as ‘ p ur e p ot e nti alit y (p ot e nz a ) t h at n o i d e ntit y a n d n o w or k c o ul d e x h a ust’ a n d as ‘t h e aff e cti o n t h at a b o d y r e c ei v es i n as m u c h as it is i n r el ati o n wit h a n ot h er b o d y ( or wit h o n e’s o w n b o d y as ot h er)’

( A g a m b e n, 2 0 1 4: 6 9).

W e u n d erst a n d t his c o n diti o n i n t er ms of e m b o di e d s u bj e cti vit y t h at d o es n ot pr es e nt its elf as a pr o bl e m or t as k, b ut n e v ert h el ess m e a ns t h at i n s o ci al e n c o u nt ers p e o pl e r e m ai n o p e n t o n e w r el ati o ns wit h ot h ers, a n d e x p eri e n- ci n g t h eir e m b o di m e nt i n r el ati o n t o s o m et hi n g t h at bri n gs it u p (s e e als o S h ust er m a n, 2 0 1 0). As o ur dis c ussi o n i n t h e s e c o n d s e cti o n s h o ws, e m b o di m e nt c a n a c c e nt u at e, f or e x a m pl e, i n sit u ati o ns of r ef u g e e st at us d et er mi n ati o n, d et e nti o n, p a p erl ess n ess, a n d b or d er cr ossi n g, b ut m a nif est its elf diff er e ntl y i n e a c h of t h es e i nst a n c es. I n ali g n m e nt wit h r e c e nt c alls f or att e nti o n t o t h e b o d y as a sit e a n d t ar g et of t h e p oliti cs of as yl u m a n d r ef u g e ( Cl ar k, 2 0 1 7;

H o d g e, 2 0 1 8; S mit h et al., 2 0 1 6), w e pr o p os e t h at t h e r ef u g e e b o d y is t h e pri m e ar e n a f or t h e p oliti ci z ati o n of (f or c e d) mi gr ati o n a n d t h e e n c o u nt ers it e nt ails. T his is s o, w e ar g u e, b e c a us e t h e b o d y is at o n c e t h e l o c us a n d t h e v e hi cl e of p oliti c al s u bj e cti vit y – w h at Pl ess n er c alls ‘ p ers o n h o o d’ a n d A g a m b e n t h e i n d et er mi- n at e ‘f or m- of-lif e’. C o m prisi n g t h e li v e d b o d y, t h e b o d y o bj e ct, a n d e m b o di e d s u bj e cti vit y, t h e r ef u g e e b o d y i s t h e i n el u ct a bl e i nt erf a c e b et w e e n t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e a n d r ef u g e e a g e n c y, a n d c o m m a n ds att e nti o n, at ti m es hi g hl y i nt e nsi v e, fr o m b ot h dir e cti o ns.

T o a c c o u nt f or t h e d et er mi n ati o n, wit h w hi c h

mi gr ati o n r e gi m es i n diff er e nt p arts of t h e w orl d

att e n d t o t h e r ef u g e e b o d y, w e h a v e alr e a d y

p oi nt e d at t h e m a n y f or ms of p oliti c al a g e n c y

t h at e m pl o y t h e b o d y o bj e ct (K o¨ r p er) as t h e

v e hi cl e a n d sit e of pr ot est a n d r esist a n c e. Y et,

it is p ossi bl e t o i d e ntif y a m or e l at e nt p oliti cs

v est e d i n t h e e m b o di e d s u bj e cti vit y of t h e li v e d

b o d y ( L ei b ), a p oliti cs t h at is eff e cti v e b e y o n d

pr a cti c e d a g e n c y. T o c a pt ur e t h e ‘f or c e fi el d’

t h at mi gr ati o n r e gi m es h a v e n o p ossi bilit y b ut t o att e n d a n d r es p o n d t o, w e li n k t h e Pl ess- n eri a n i d e a of p ers o n h o o d as e m b o di e d s u b- j e cti vit y t o A g a m b e n’s ( 2 0 1 4) n oti o n of

‘ d estit u e nt p ot e nti al’ (p ot e nz a d estit u e nt e ), a n d t h e n i d e ntif y e m p at h y as a k e y d y n a- mis m t hr o u g h w hi c h t h es e b e c o m e o p er ati v e i n e m b o di e d e n c o u nt ers.

E m b e d d e d i n t h e r esi d u al i n d et er mi n ati o n of lif e, ‘li b er at e d fr o m its “ e c o n o m y ”, fr o m r e a- s o ns a n d p ur p os es t h at d efi n e it’ ( A g a m b e n, 2 0 1 4: 6 9), t h er e is a s p e cifi c i n o p er ati v e p oliti cs t h at A g a m b e n c alls d estit u e nt p ot e nti al. I nst e a d of o p e nl y c o nfr o nti n g or r esisti n g ‘ e xisti n g v al- u es a n d p o w ers’, it t hr e at e ns t o r e v e al t h es e as c o nstit ut e d s o ci al or d ers ( A g a m b e n, 2 0 1 4: 7 0).

I m p ort a ntl y f or o ur p ur p os es, d estit u e nt p ot e n- ti al is t h e ‘ gr e at est pr es er v ati o n of h u m a n p o w er [ pr e cis el y] w h e n it is h el d i n p ot e nti a’ ( M ur p h y, 2 0 1 9: 9). T h e d estit u e nt p ot e nti al of e m b o di e d lif e n e v ert h el ess al w a ys r e m ai ns i n t h e h ori z o n of t h e c o nstit ut e d p o w er as its ‘ u n k n o w n u n k n o w n’, p ossi bl e s ur pris e or r u pt ur e. I n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y as Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 9) vi e ws e x c e ntri c h u m a n e m b o di m e nt as f u n d a m e nt all y diff er e nt fr o m t h at of n o n- h u m a n a ni m als, A g a m b e n ( 1 9 9 9: 1 8 2) writ es t h at ‘[ o]t h er li vi n g b ei n gs ar e c a p a bl e o nl y of t h eir s p e cifi c p ot e n- ti alit y [ . .. ] b ut h u m a n b ei n gs ar e t h e a ni m als w h o ar e c a p a bl e of t h eir o w n i m p ot e nti alit y’, t h at is, t h e y h a v e t h e p ossi bilit y t o t ur n a w a y fr o m w h at is p ossi bl e i n ‘t h e a b yss of h u m a n i m p ot e nti alit y’. T his a b yss Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 8: 4 6) vi e ws as t h e u nf at h o m a bilit y of h u m a ns’ r el a- ti o n t o t h e w orl d c h ar a ct eri z e d b y ‘ et er n al r efi- g ur a bilit y or o p e n n ess’.

W e c o nsi d er d estit u e nt p ot e nti al a u bi q uit o us as p e ct of e m b o di e d h u m a n lif e. As A g a m b e n ( 2 0 1 6: 2 3 1) u n d erli n es, it is n ot d efi n e d b y

‘ w h at’ h u m a ns ar e b ut r at h er ‘ h o w’ t h e y ar e w h at t h e y ar e i n ‘t h e m o d e i n w hi c h e a c h p er- s o n, i n l osi n g hi ms elf as s u bj e ct, c o nstit ut es hi ms elf as f or m- of-lif e’. F or Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 9) t h e q u esti o n of h o w r el at es t o t h e c o nstit uti v e l a c k of b al a n c e i n h u m a n e m b o di m e nt t h at l e a v es

p ers o n h o o d al w a ys v ul n er a bl e t o disr u pti o n.

Bri n gi n g t o g et h er p ot e nti alit y a n d v ul n er a bilit y all o ws us t o u n d erst a n d h o w s o ci al e m b o di m e nt is e n a ct e d a n d c o nt ai n e d diff er e ntl y i n at- dist a n c e a n d f a c e-t o-f a c e e n c o u nt ers b et w e e n r ef u g e es a n d t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e. I n ot h er w or ds, w e c o n c e pt u ali z e t h e g o v er n a n c e/

a g e n c y d y n a mis m i n t h es e e n c o u nt ers as a q u es- ti o n of t h e d e gr e e t o w hi c h mi gr ati o n r e gi m es ar e e x p os e d t o t h e f or c e fi el d of t h e e m b o di e d pr es e n c e of as yl u m s e e k ers, a n d t h e m e as ur es t h e y ar e i n vit e d t o t a k e t o m a n a g e t his e x p os ur e b y w a y of str at e gi c all y a v oi di n g it or, w h er e n e c ess ar y, r e g ul ati n g t h e c o n diti o ns u n d er w hi c h it u nf ol ds.

T o u n d erst a n d h o w h u m a n e m b o di m e nt o p er at es i n t h es e e n c o u nt ers, w e c o n c e pt u ali z e t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m es’ e x p os ur e t o as yl u m s e e- k ers’ p ers o n h o o d i n t er ms of e m p at h y ( C uff et al., 2 0 1 6). Wit h t his n oti o n, w e d o n ot r ef er t o a v oliti o n al as p e ct of s o ci al i nt er a cti o n i m b u e d wit h p ositi v e e m oti o ns (i. e. s y m p at h y), b ut r at h er t o t h e g e n eri c h u m a n c a p a cit y t o u n d erst a n d t h e p oi nt of vi e w of ot h er b o dil y s u bj e cts t h at st a n d t h er e i n p ers o n ( W als h, 2 0 1 4). E m p at h y bri n gs t o g et h er h u m a n c a p a cit y t o u n d erst a n d a n d t o b e u n d erst o o d b y t h e ot h er.

I n Pl ess n er’s ( 2 0 1 9) w or ds, h u m a ns li v e i n a w orl d ‘ w h er e t h e e m p h ati c I a n d y o u m er g e i nt o t h e w e’ a n d w h er e a p ers o n ‘st a n ds w h er e t h e ot h er st a n ds a n d t h e ot h er o c c u pi e d his pl a c e’

( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 9: 2 8 6, 3 1 9). I n t his s e ns e e m p a-

t h y m ar ks a t w o- w a y p at h b et w e e n t h e e m b o-

di e d s u bj e cts i n v ol v e d, o n e t h at d o es n ot u nit e

b ut li n ks t h e m sit u ati o n all y. E m b o di m e nt is k e y

h er e pr e cis el y b e c a us e a c c ess t o t h e ot h er’s s u b-

j e cti vit y d e p e n ds o n t h e p ossi bilit y t o v ali d at e

ass u m pti o ns a b o ut t h e ot h er’s e x p eri e n c es i n a

sit u ati o n of c o- pr es e n c e ( Z a h a vi, 2 0 1 0). W hil e

d e ali n g wit h a n as yl u m s e e k er’s c as e al w a ys

o c c urs ‘ wit hi n c o nt e xts of m e a ni n g t h at tr a ns-

c e n d t h e h er e a n d n o w’, t o ass ess a n as yl u m

s e e k er as a ‘ u ni q u e p ers o n’ wit h s p e cifi c e x p eri-

e n c es, as as yl u m i nt er vi e wi n g r e q uir es, t h er e is

n o alt er n ati v e t o f a c e-t o-f a c e e n c o u nt er ( Z a h a vi, 2 0 1 0: 3 0 1).

I m p ort a ntl y, a c c ess to t h e ot h er’s e x p eri- e n c es t hr o u g h e m p at h y d o es n ot n e c ess aril y r e q uir e ‘ a n y p ositi v e r e g ar d f or t h e ot h er’

( H e a d, 2 0 1 6: 1 7 5). It als o s o m eti m es o c c urs

‘t o w ar d t h os e o n e disli k es, or at i n c o n v e ni e nt ti m es’ a n d l e a ds t o att e m pts at r e g ul ati n g or a v oi di n g e x p os ur e t o its o c c urr e n c e ( C his m ar, 1 9 8 8: 2 6 0). T his is t h e c as e es p e ci all y i n i nsti- t uti o n al e n c o u nt ers w h er e e m p at h y f u n cti o ns

‘ as a t e c h n ol o g y of a c c ess, pr o vi di n g a n “i nsi d er p ers p e cti v e ” o n “t h e tr ut h ”’ ( P e d w ell, 2 0 1 2:

1 7 2). H o w e v er, e m p at h y m a y als o l e a d t o t h e s h ari n g of e m oti o ns a n d e v e n s y m p at h y ( C uff et al., 2 0 1 6). T h er ef or e, i n hi er ar c hi c al cir c u m- st a n c es, s u c h as t h os e pr es e nt i n as yl u m i nt er- vi e ws, it c alls f or m e a ns b y w hi c h t o ‘i n hi bit t h e e m oti o n al c o nt a gi o n [ a n d] t o e xtr a ct fr o m t h e i nt ers u bj e cti v e r el ati o ns hi p’ ( B ert h o z a n d T hir- i o u x, 2 0 1 0: 3 7). I n t his r e g ar d t h e c o n c e pt of e m p at h y d es cri b es w ell t h e ‘f or c e fi el d’ c o nsti- t ut e d b y t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e’s n e e d t o g ai n k n o wl e d g e a b o ut t h e as yl u m a p pli c a nt, a n d t h e as yl u m s e e k ers’ y e ar ni n g t o b e m et as p ers o ns wit h e x p eri e nti al hist or y a n d a n o p e n- e n d e d f ut ur e. E x p os e d t o t h e d estit u e nt p ot e nti al of t his f or c e fi el d – t h e r u pt ur es a n d s ur pris es of e m b o di e d p ers o n h o o d – t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e t h us s e e ks t o a v oi d e n c o u nt eri n g p ers o ns, a n d w h er e t his is u n a v oi d a bl e, as i n as yl u m a p pli c a- ti o n pr o c e d ur es, it m a k es e v er y eff ort t o r e g u- l at e t h e sit u ati o ns i n w hi c h e m p at h y is at pl a y ( D a hl vi k, 2 0 1 8).

E m p at h y g o es u n n oti c e d i n r o uti n e s o ci al i nt er a cti o n, b ut w e c o nt e n d t h at i n cir c u m- st a n c es c h ar a ct eri z e d b y st ar k p o w er i m b al- a n c es it a ni m at es a p oliti cs of e n c o u nt ers t h at, i n o ur c as e, u nf ol ds as a c o nt est ati o n o v er r ef u- g e es’ p ers o n h o o d. T his c o nt est ati o n b uil ds fr o m t h e t e nsi o n b et w e e n t h e e m b o di e d pr es e n c e of r ef u g e es a n d t h e m e as ur es t hr o u g h w hi c h pr a c- ti c es of mi gr ati o n c o ntr ol s e e k t o r e g ul at e e x p o- s ur e t o e m p at h y ( H o d g es a n d Kl ei n, 2 0 0 1). At st a k e h er e is b ei n g e n c o u nt er e d as, a n d

e n c o u nt eri n g, b o di es or p ers o ns – a cts t h at p er- f or m a C art esi a n c ut b et w e e n t h e s u bj e cti v e a n d o bj e cti v e b o d y t h at m a y c o m e t o o v ers h a d o w p ers o n h o o d b y dir e cti n g att e nti o n e x c essi v el y t o t h e b o d y o bj e ct (K o¨r p er) or t h e s u bj e cti v e b o d y ( L ei b ) i n o n e’s e x p eri e n c e of o n es elf or t h e ot h er ( T ol o n e, 2 0 1 4; s e e als o Si m o ns e n et al., 2 0 1 7).

V O bj e cti vi zi n g a n d s u bj e cti vi zi n g l o gi cs of g o v e r ni n g

W e h a v e i d e ntifi e d t w o l o gi cs t h at w or k t o c o n- t ai n t h e p ers o n h o o d of r ef u g e es, t h us r e n d eri n g t h e m m or e g o v er n a bl e s u bj e cts. B ot h t a k e a cti v e st a n c es r e g ar di n g e x p os ur e t o e m p at h y a n d o p er at e b y pr o v o ki n g sit u ati o ns t h at hi n d er t h os e i n s u b or di n at e p ositi o ns fr o m a p p e ari n g a n d r es p o n di n g as p ers o ns. T h e first m a n n er, i n w hi c h g o v er ni n g s e e ks t o r e g ul at e its e x p o- s ur e t o e m p at h y, is t hr o u g h o bj e cti viz ati o n of t h e r ef u g e e b o d y b ot h at dist a n c e a n d i n b o dil y e n c o u nt ers.

W h e n p oli ci es, m e di a r e pr es e nt ati o ns a n d p olitic al r h et oric p ortra y r ef u g ees as a f ac eless a n d a n o n y m o us m ultit u de of p e o ple, t heir i n di- vi d ual h u ma nit y is o verl o o ke d a n d t h e y are ‘c o n- si g ne d t o t heir b o d y. T hat is, t he y are re n dere d s p ee c hless a n d wit h o ut a ge n c y, a p h ysi cal e ntit y, or r at h er a p h ysi cal m ass wit hi n w hic h i n di vi- d u alit y is s u bs u m e d’ ( R aj ar a m, 2 0 0 2: 2 5 1, e m p hasis i n ori gi n al). I n t his r e gister, r ef u g ees m a y a p pe ar as ‘i n n oc e nt, i n n ee d of c harit y a n d pr ote cti o n, a n d s u bje ct t o e ve nts o utsi d e of [t h eir]

c o ntr ol’ (J o h ns o n, 2 0 1 6: 6 2), or as ‘s o ur ces a n d s pr e a d ers of i nf e cti o us dis e as es, [ ... ] b o g us q ue ue-j u m p ers w h o are tr yi n g t o ta ke a d v a nta ge of l a x ref u gee p oli ci es [ ... a n d t err orists] tr yi n g t o g ai n e ntr y t o w est er n n ati o ns’ ( Ess es et al., 2 0 1 3: 5 2 4 – 5). I n Pless n er’s ( 2 0 1 9: 2 7 4) t er ms, t h e y are c o nsi d ere d ‘ e ntirel y a p pe ar a n ce’, p h ys- i c al t hi n g- b o di es t h at e xist as m er e c arri ers of pr o perti es ( K o¨r per).

At b or d er cr ossi n g p oi nts, i n c o nt a cts wit h

i nstit uti o n al a ct ors, or w h e n f a ci n g p e o pl e wit h

a nti-i m mi gr a nt attit u d es, t h e o bj e cti vi z ati o n of t h e r ef u g e e s u bj e ct m a nif ests i n b o dil y e n c o u n- t ers ( e. g. C o k er, 2 0 0 4; H al dr u p et al., 2 0 0 6;

I br a hi m a n d H o w art h, 2 0 1 7; S c h e el, 2 0 1 3).

Als o i n s u c h sit u ati o ns r ef u g e es m a y fi n d t h e m- s el v es r e d u c e d i nt o g e n er ali z e d b o di es, a bstr a ct e d fr o m p ers o n h o o d wit h n e e ds, f e ars, pr ef er e n c es, r el ati o ns hi ps, et hi cs, vi e ws, r es p o nsi biliti es, a biliti es, a n d d esir es ( Cl ar k, 2 0 1 7; H a y d e n, 2 0 0 6). Wit h o ut p ers o n al attri- b ut es, t h eir e x p eri e n c es d o n ot a p p e ar m e a ni n g- f ul or i n w a nt of c o m pr e h e nsi v e u n d erst a n di n g.

I n s u c h e n c o u nt ers p e o pl e r efr ai n fr o m st a n di n g

‘ w h er e t h e ot h er st a n ds’ ( Pl ess n er, 2 0 1 9: 3 1 9) a n d t h us r ef u g e es f all b e y o n d e m p at h y ( S v e- n a e us, 2 0 1 6).

I n c o n cr et e t er ms t h e r ef u g e e b o d y m a y b e o bj e cti vi z e d as t h e t ar g et of bi o m etri c s ur v eil- l a n c e a n d f or c e d fi n g er pri nti n g ( D a vi es et al., 2 0 1 7), or p h ysi c al e x a mi n ati o n b y mi gr ati o n a ut h oriti es a n d t h eir a d vis ors ‘ as t h e pl a c e t h at dis pl a ys t h e e vi d e n c e of tr ut h’ a b o ut t h eir p er- s e c uti o n ( F assi n a n d d’ H all ui n, 2 0 0 5: 5 9 8), a n d i n m e di c al e n c o u nt ers as ‘ a s y m b oli c l o c us f or t h e l oss of s o ci al a n d i n di vi d u al s elf- d et er mi n a- ti o n’ ( C o k er, 2 0 0 4: 4 1 5). Or c o n v ers el y, t h e r e d u cti o n of t h e r ef u g e e t o a b o d y o bj e ct m a y m a nif est t hr o u g h ali e n ati n g g o v er ni n g pr a cti c es t h at el u d e e m p at h eti c e n c o u nt ers alt o g et h er, s u c h as ‘t h e pri n ci pl e of d e n yi n g r es c u e a n d l etti n g u n w a nt e d mi gr a nts di e’ at b or d er z o n es ( S c hi n d el, 2 0 1 8: 2 1 8), or t h e m e di c al c ar e t h at

‘f u n cti o ns as a t e c h n ol o g y of e nf or c e m e nt [ w h er e] t h e si c k a n d i nj ur e d ar e c ar e d f or i n or d er t o f a cilit at e t h eir ti m el y d e p ort ati o n’ ( Wil- li a ms, 2 0 1 5: 1 8). E m p h asi zi n g a stri ki n g wit h- dr a w al of e m p at hi c r el at e d n ess, D a vi es et al.

( 2 0 1 7: 1 2 6 3) r ef er t o ‘ d eli b er at e p oliti c al i n dif- f er e n c e t o w ar ds r ef u g e es’ as a f or m of str at e gi c st at e i n a cti o n t h at s e e ks t o u p h ol d e m b o di e d d estit uti o n a m o n g mi gr a nts a n d t h er e b y ‘ c o er c e mi gr a nts t o o n w ar d m o bilit y’.

I n t h e a cts of o bj e cti vi z ati o n at st a k e is t h e r e d u cti o n of mi gr a nts’ p ers o n h o o d i nt o w h at Pl ess n er c alls K o¨r p er, t h e b o d y o bj e ct, w hi c h

all o ws t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e t o cir c u m v e nt e m p at h y b y h ol di n g a dist a n c e t o r ef u g e es as e m b o di e d p ers o ns. A v oi di n g t h e f or c e fi el d of p ers o n h o o d alt o g et h er m a k es it p ossi bl e f or r e gi m es t o s e p ar at e pr a cti c es of mi gr ati o n c o n- tr ol fr o m t h e pr o visi o n of h u m a nit ari a n assis- t a n c e a n d f o c us s el e cti v el y o n t h e f or m er ( W alt ers, 2 0 1 1). C o n v ers el y, i n t h e l o gi c of s u b- j e cti viz ati o n g o v er ni n g pr o d u c es r ef u g e es as e x c essi v el y li v e d b o di es ( L ei b ). Als o t h es e pr a c- ti c es w or k t o m a n a g e t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e’s e x p os ur e t o e m p at h y, b ut t h e y d o s o b y r e d u ci n g as yl u m s e e k ers’ p ers o n h o o d i nt o b ar e s u bj e c- ti v e b ei n g i n t h e pr es e nt t e ns e, oft e n i n t h e c o n- t e xt of pr o bi n g i nt o t h eir s u bj e cti v e e x p eri e n c es f or g o v er n m e nt al p ur p os es.

St at us d et er mi n ati o n i nt er vi e ws a n d ot h er pr a cti c es of as yl u m c as e ass ess m e nt ar e, i n d e e d, ill u mi n ati v e of h o w s u bj e cti vi z ati o n w or ks t o c o nt ai n a n d m a n a g e e m p at h y t hr o u g h its i nstr u- m e nt al us e as a t e c h n ol o g y of a c c ess t o i nsi d er k n o wl e d g e ( e. g. M c G h e e, 2 0 0 0; F assi n a n d d’ H all ui n, 2 0 0 5; P u u m al a a n d K y nsil e ht o, 2 0 1 6). T h e r e d u cti o n h er e o p er at es t hr o u g h as y m m etri c i nt er pr et ati o n of k n o wl e d g e, w h er e b y r ef u g e es ar e c o nsi d er e d n o w- a n d- h er e s u bj e cts wit h s u bj e cti v e k n o wl e d g e o nl y.

W h e n e v al u at e d, t h eir first- h a n d a c c o u nts of v ul n er a bilit y ar e b y d ef a ult c o nsi d er e d s u bj e c- ti v e i n t h e s e ns e of b ei n g s us c e pti bl e t o s elf- s e e ki n g bi as ( e. g. K o b eli ns k y, 2 0 1 9; W ett er gr e n a n d Wi kstr o¨ m, 2 0 1 4). E v e n w h e n gi v e n v al u e as e vi d e n c e, as yl u m s e e k ers’ a c c o u nts ar e fir ml y b o u n d wit h t h e r e m e m b eri n g a n d wit n essi n g li v e d b o d y t h at c o m es t o dis cl os e t h e r e as o ns f or t h eir p ers e c uti o n as dir e ctl y e x p eri e n c e d, t h e n a n d t h er e. Di mi nis h e d as p ers o ns e x c e ntri- c all y p ositi o n e d i n t h eir w orl ds, t h e r ef u g e es’

k n o wl e d g e o n iss u es s u c h as t h e g e n er al sit u a- ti o n i n t h eir c o u ntr y of ori gi n, t h e l o c al cir c u m- st a n c es t h at f or c e d t h e m t o l e a v e, a n d t h e c h a n gi n g c o n diti o ns of vi ol e n c e i n t h e r e gi o n is dis miss e d as s u bj e cti v e a n d m oti v at e d b y att e m pts t o g ai n r ef u g e e st at us (J e ns e n, 2 0 1 8).

T h eir k n o wl e d g e is d e e m e d ‘ “i dl e c h att er ” or

u n a ut h ori z e d s p e e c h- a cts of a n a bj e ct s u bj e ct [ .. . ] t h e v oi c e of h e ars a y [ .. . a n d] i n a ut h e nti c k n o wl e d g e’ ( M c G h e e, 2 0 0 0: 3 7).

W h at s u bj e cti vi z ati o n m e a ns t o r ef u g e e a g e n c y is d et a c h m e nt fr o m e v er yt hi n g e x c e pt f or t h e h er e- a n d- n o w. B y i n di vi d u ati n g r ef u g e es i nt o e x p eri e n ci n g b o d y s u bj e cts, g o v er ni n g pr a cti c es c ut t h e m off fr o m f a mili al a n d a mi a bl e r el ati o ns, s o ci al n et w or ks a n d c o m m u niti es, s o ci eti es a n d c ult ur es, k n o w n hist ori es a n d e x p e ct e d f ut uriti es – fr o m e v er yt hi n g t h at attri- b ut es p e o pl e as p ers o ns, t h at is, as i nt ers u bj e c- ti v el y c o nstit uti n g h u m a n b ei n gs c a p a bl e of r el ati n g wit h t h e ms el v es a n d ot h ers (J e ns e n, 2 0 1 8; K alli o, 2 0 1 9; K alli o a n d H a¨ kli, 2 0 1 9;

S p otti, 2 0 1 9). T his f or m of g o v er ni n g t h w arts r ef u g e es’ c a p a cit y t o r efl e ct u p o n t h eir e x p eri- e nti al a n d o bj e cti v e w orl d, a n d t o s h ar e t h eir li v es wit h ot h ers i n t h eir s o ci al w orl ds. It s us- t ai ns t h e e xisti n g hi er ar c hi es a n d p o w er r el a- ti o ns b et w e e n as yl u m s e e k ers a n d t h eir i nstit uti o n al ass ess ors b y p us hi n g t h e f or m er t o w ar ds t h e p ositi o n of b o d y s u bj e ct (L ei b ) w h o c a n o nl y e x p e ct t o b e c ar e d f or or a b a n d o n e d, a n d all o wi n g t h e l att er a n e utr al b ur e a u cr ati c r ol e w h er e f a cts, pr o ofs, e vi d e n c es a n d tr ut hs ar e o bj e cti v el y h a n dl e d ( Gill a n d G o o d, 2 0 1 9;

K y nsil e ht o a n d P u u m al a, 2 0 1 5).

E m p at h y h er e w or ks as a pr o d u cti v e d y n a- mis m of s u bj e cti vi z ati o n e m pl o y e d i n c o n di- ti o ns m a n a g e d a n d c o ntr oll e d b y t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e. T o s u c c e e d i n g ai ni n g a c c ess t o t h e as y- l u m s e e k er’s i nti m at e e x p eri e n c es, t h e c as e ass ess or’s d e m a n di n g t as k is t o cr e at e a tr ustf ul at m os p h er e f or t h e i nt er vi e w a n d f or m a n a mi c- a bl e r el ati o n wit h t h e i nt er vi e w e e, wit h o ut b ei n g e x p os e d t o t h e tr a nsf er of e m oti o ns or r u pt ur es a n d s ur pris es t h at mi g ht c o m pr o mis e t h e ‘ o bj e cti v e’ h a n dli n g of t h e c as e ( D a hl vi k, 2 0 1 8). U ns ur prisi n gl y, t h e c o n diti o ns u n d er w hi c h as yl u m i nt er vi e ws ar e c arri e d o ut ar e c ar ef ull y s cri pt e d a n d c h or e o gr a p h e d t o mi ni- mi z e t h e p ossi bilit y of i nt er v e ni n g i nfl u e n c es c o mi n g fr o m t h e e m b o di e d pr es e n c e of a n as y- l u m s e e k er as a p ers o n ( P u u m al a et al., 2 0 1 7).

Pr a cti c es wit h w hi c h e x p os ur e t o e m p at h y is r e g ul at e d i n t h es e e n c o u nt ers i n cl u d e ‘ m e nt al r esili e n c e a n d t h e a bilit y t o dist a n c e o n es elf c o ns ci o usl y fr o m t h e e m oti o n al p art of t h e w or k’ ( D a hl vi k, 2 0 1 8: 5 6). W h e n s u c c essf ul, t h e i nt er vi e w pr o vi d es t h e b est p ossi bl e a c c ess t o r ef u g e es’ e x p eri e n c e d w orl ds, fr o m w h er e k n o wl e d g e t h at s er v es d e cisi o n m a ki n g c a n b e s el e ct e d a n d r e- c o nt e xt u ali z e d, wit h o ut b ei n g u ns ettl e d b y t h e s ur prisi n g d estit u e nt p ot e nti al of e m b o di m e nt. W hil e a mi c a bl e a n d e m p h ati c t o s o m e e xt e nt, t h e sit u ati o n is hi g hl y hi er ar c h- i c al i n t h at it p ositi o ns t h os e i n v ol v e d a c c or di n g t o diff er e nt f or ms of k n o wl e d g e r at h er t h a n dif- f er e nt n or ms of h u m a nit y .

W hil e t h e t w o i ntr o d u c e d m o d es of g o v er n- i n g – o bj e cti vi z ati o n a n d s u bj e cti vi z ati o n – f ol- l o w diff er e nt l o gi cs a n d ar e oft e n us e d i n disti n ct sit u ati o ns, f or r ef u g e es t h e y d o n ot a p p e ar dis c o n n e ct e d f or c es. As F assi n ( 2 0 1 1:

2 9 4) ar g u es, ‘[s u c h str u ct ur al] f or ms of vi ol e n c e ar e oft e n i nti m at el y r el at e d a n d diffi c ult t o dis- e nt a n gl e’. Alt h o u g h wit h diff er e nt m o d es of o p er ati o n, t h e y b ot h m a n a g e t h e d e gr e e t o w hi c h e m p at h y, v est e d i n t h e ( mis)r e c o g niti o n of r ef u g e es’ p ers o n h o o d, m a y c o m e t o d efi n e t h eir e m b o di e d e n c o u nt ers wit h t h e mi gr ati o n r e gi m e. As o bj e cti vi z ati o n e m p h asi z es t h e a n o n y mit y of t h e r ef u g e e b o d y at t h e c ost of p ers o n h o o d, a n d s u bj e cti vi z ati o n m o v es t o t h e ot h er dir e cti o n b y o v er- e m p h asi zi n g t h e e m b o- di e d s u bj e ct h er e a n d n o w, t h e r efl e xi v e, t e m- p or all y m ulti pl e a n d d y n a mi c p ers o n is t or n a p art. W h at oft e n e ns u es i n pr a cti c e h as b e e n wit n ess e d i n a n u m b er of st u di es a n d criti c al r e p orts b y N G Os a n d j o ur n alists: d es p air, r es e nt m e nt, d e cli n e d a biliti es t o c ar e f or o n es elf a n d ot h ers, l a c k of pr os p e cts, m e nt al h e alt h pr o bl e ms, a n d l osi n g t h e d esir e t o li v e – all i nst a n c es of hi n d er e d a g e n c y a n d di mi nis h e d p ers o n h o o d ( M o u nt z et al., 2 0 1 3; S c hilt z et al., 2 0 1 8).

H o w e v er, p e o pl e d o n ot l os e all t h eir c a p a- citi es t o a ct o n c e t h eir p ers o n h o o d is c h all e n g e d.

As Pl ess n er ( 2 0 1 9: 3 0 2 – 3) p osits, w e al w a ys