USNKKIIGSVATUS
Finnish Journal of Music Education
Vol. r, No r
YU0PTST0 ;rrus-Arurnun H
Musiikkikasvatus, vuosikerta 1, numero 1
Finnish Journal of Music Education, volume 1, number 1
1996
Julkaisijat / Publishers:
Sibelius-Akatemian musiikkikasvatuksen osasto Sibelius Academy, Department ot Music Education
Oulun yliopiston kasvatustieteiden tiedekunta, musiikkikasvatuksen koulutus- ja tutkimusyksikkd University of Oulu, Faculty of Education, Center for Music Education and Research
PdAtoimittaja/ Managing Editor
apulaisprofessori Marjut Laitinen, Sibelius-Akatemia Toimituskunta / Editorial Board
professori Kai Karma, Sibelius-Akatemia professori Jukka Louhivuori, JyvAskyl6n yliopisto lehtori Terhi Oksanen, Koulujen musiikinopettajat ry professori Heikki Ruismdki, Oulun yliopisto assistentti Heidi Westerlund, Sibelius-Akatemia Toimitussihteeri / Editorial assistant
Markku Kaikkonen Ulkoasu ia taitto / Layout Mikael Kivelii
Sari Mattila Piirrokset
rehtori Lassi Rajamaa, Sibelius-Akatemia Toimituksen osoite / Editorial Address Sibelius-Akatemia
Musiikkikasvatuksen osasto I P -346 PL 86, FIN 00251 Helsinki puh (tel) +358-(9)0-4054741 fax +358-(9)0-4054684 email mlaitine@siba.fi Tilaukset
Toimituksen osoite, Pirjo Nadasi puh 90-4054575 Tilaushinnat
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At the editorial address Subscription rate 180 FIM
Musiikkikasvatus ilmestyy vuonna 1996 kaksi kertaa.
The Journal is published twice in 1996.
tssN 1239-3908
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t ' 411 't'lot"tAF'011 Kierratykseen sopiva tuote Alhaiset peestdt valmistuksessa
Hakapaino Oy, Helsinki 1996
Lukijalle Marjut Laitinen Artikkelit ja katsal
David J. Elliott Thomas A. Regelski
Keith Swanwick
Pentti Miiattinen
Eija Kauppinen Heikki Ruismiiki, Lauri VAkevit, Juha Ojala
Lectioita ja opinni Leena Hyvonen Jukka Louhivuori Musiikki ja tekno Heikki Ruismiiki Ajankohtaista Mariut Laitinen
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. I Nro I t996
Lukijalle Marjut Laitinen
Artikkelit ja katsaukset David J. Elliott
Thomas A. Regelski
Keith Swanwick
Pentti Mddttanen
Eija Kauppinen Heikki Ruismdki, Lauri Vdkevd, Juha Ojala
Lectioita ja opinniiytteitd Leena Hyvdnen
Jukka Louhivuori Musiikki ja teknologia Heikki Ruismiiki Ajankohtaista Marjut Laitinen
Ala-asteen oppilas musiikin kuunteliiana - Arvio KK Leena Hyvdsen vditoskirjaita...
Sisiillysluettelo
Ieemana filosofia..
M u s i c E d u c a t i o n i n F i n l a n d : A N e w p h i l o s o p h i c a l V i e w . . . . 6 Tiivistelmd s.21
Prolegomenon To a Praxial philosophy of Music ano
M u s i c E d u c a t i o n . . . . . . 2 3 Tiivistelmd s.39
M u s i c E d u c a t i o n : l s th e r e L i f e b e y o n d S c h o o l ? . . . 4 1 A response to David Elliott
Tiivistelmd s.46
Pragmaattista musiikin filosofiaa
D a v i d J . E l l i o t t m u s i i k i s t a j a musiikkikasvatuksesra... . . . 4 7 Summary s.50
Musiikinopettajan l6ytoretki musiikkikasvatuksen filosofiaan... ...52 S u m m a r y s . 5 5
Kontekstuaalinen pluralismi Oulun yliopiston
musiikkikasvatuksen opiskelijoiden musiikkikdsityksissd...56 S u m m a r y s . 6 5
Yksilonkehityksen varhaisvaiheet musiikin kokemisen perustana...66 Summary s.70
. ' . , . , , ' ' . ' . . . 7 1
L e h d e n t e e m o j a j a toistuvia p a l s t o j a . . . . . . 7 6 O h j e i t a k i r j o i t t a j i l l e . . . . . . 7 8 Lehden toimituskunta ja kirjoittajat
E d i t o r s & C o n t r i b u t o r s o f F J M E V o l j , N o 1 . . . g 0
FJME Vol. r No r 1996
haluttu myos korostaa, ettd taiteissa on kysy- mys paljosta muustakin kuin kauneuseldmyk- sistii, ja tehdei selveiksi se, ettd esteettinen kas- vatus on aivan eri asia kuin estetisoiva opetus.
Samanaikaisesti musiikin maailmankuva on rat- kaisevasti laajentu nut ja monimuotoistunut. Ero yli 25 vuotta sitten vallinneeseen tilanteeseen on dramaattinen. Ja viimeiseksi, mutta ei vd- hiten, kdsitys ihmisestti ja hiinen voimavarojen- s a s y t y t t a m i s e s t a o p p i j a n a o n k o g n i t i i v i s e n psykologian johdosta tyystin erilainen kuin nel- jdnnesvuosisata sitten.
Suhteessa ooetussuunnitelma-kdsit- teeseen on opettajat iiskettriin pantu uuden tilanteen eteen. Keskusjohtoisesta suunnitte- lusta on jiiljelld vain raamit. ltse pitii:i tietaiei ja ptiZittAd, mikd on tdrkeAA tai vAlttAm:itdntd.
Ylhaalta ei sanella ihanteita, tavoitteita, opetus- tapoja eikii oppisisdlt6j:i materiaaleineen. Sen sijaan on pystyttava itselleen, rehtoreille, oppi- laiden vanhemmille ja rahoittajille perustele- maan jo sekin, miksi ja kenelle musiikkia opete- taan. Puhumattakaan siita, mita opetetaan, mi- ten opetetaan, tai siitii, mihin perustuu kestiiv6 osaaminen, pitktijAnteinen motivaatio, ja miten o p p i l a a n it s e a r v i o i n t i a t a i o m a a t a v o i t t e e n - asettelua voi tukea. Opettajat niin kouluissa, o p i s t o i s s a k u i n k o r k e a k o u l u i s s a k i n o v a t sdidddsmuutosten sekd teknokraattisen tulos- ajattelun paineissa joutuneet uudella tavalla pohtimaan tyonsii perimmdisid perusteita.
Minkdrin alan musiikkikasvatta.ja ei voi endii tehdir tyotddn pel kdstiiiin kokemuksen, perimiitiedon, auktoriteettien, oppimateriaalien tai normatiivisten opettajankirjojen varassa.
Ooetusta ei voi suunnitella ilman omaa niike-
mysta arvoista ja paama kulloisenkin opetussuunni ja valittu profiili mririreieivdr
N i i n p d M u s i i k k i simmdisestii teemasta pi ettd liikkeelleldhto tapahtui Aiheen valinnasta sitten j siikkikasvatus onkin suor t d m d n e n s i m m d i s e n n - e n g l a n n i k s i . K e s k u s t e l u a filosofiasta ei suomeksi ole kdyty. Mutta epdilemdttd s Lienee harvinaisti yhdessd numerossa kirjo t u n n e t u i m o i i n l u k e u t u v a PaiAartikkelim me kirjoittaj kalainen orofessori David E l u e n t o v i e r a i l u n S u o m e e r a r t i k k e l i n s a n i i d e n k y s y luentoyleison joukosta kor professori Thomas Regelr ton professori Keith Swar ouheenvuoronsa Elliottin kirjaan "Music Matters". Se lehdessd suomeksi arvic Mairitt:inen. Musiikinopetl puolestaan pohdiskelee, m e n t e n l u e t u i m m i l l a m u s i i feilla olisi kdytdnndn musii vaa. Oulun uudessa koulu selvitelld, millaisia tausta m u s i i k k i k a s v a t u k s e n o p i r kerrotaan orof. Heikki Ruis artikkelissa. Oulussa toimi L e e n a H y v d n e n , j o n k a v tdssd lehdessd.
Musiikkikasvatur s e n e n s i m m a i n e n t i e t e ( Suomessa. Aloite lehden p belius-Akatemian musiikki Oulun yliopiston musiikkiki tutkimusyksikon kanssa c v u o d e n 1 9 9 6 a i k a n a i l m T u l e v i e n n u m e r o i d e n a i tiimiin lehden Ajankohte tyon keiytainnolle ja empirr varattu ai hepiirejA tuonnel roissa. Lehden toinen nu a i k a n a .
Teemana filosofia
Miksi David Elliott on ajankohtainen ja kiistanalainen? Siksi, ettd hdn on muita kiirkevim- min vaatinut uutta filosofista nzikemystd musiikin ja musiikkikasvatuksen perustaksi. Ndkemystii, joka pystyisi kattamaan kaikki musiikin ilmene- mismuodot. Hdnen ja toisen p6:ikirjoittajamme Regelskin kohdalla se on merkinnyt irtautumista esteettisestd musiikkikAsityksestd ja siihen nojaa- vasta taidekasvatuksen ideologiasta. Esteettisen konseption sijaan he esittavat ajatuksiaan prag- m a a t t i s e n f i l o s o f i s e n k o u l u k u n n a n h e n g e s s d , erityisesti Deweyn kasvatusndkemyksen perilli- sin€i. Tiimii kytkeytyy heiddn teksteissdiin kon- s t r u k t i i v i s - k o g n i t i i v i s e e n o p p i m i s k d s i t y k s e e n . Keskeisimmdksi kdsitteeksi nousee toiminta, mie- len toiminta. Musiikin ja muiden "taitamisalojen"
tiedon, osaamisen ja oppimisen ymmdrtdmiseen on toiminnan kasitteistolla suuri merkitys, samoin myos nonverbaalisten prosessien tutkimukselle ja s o v e l l u k s i i n .
Suomen peruskoulun opetussuunnitel- massa, vuodesta 1970 ldhtien, musiikki on sijoit- tunut esteettisen kasvatuksen osa-alueeseen.
Korostettiin esteettisten arvojen kokemisen ja eld- myksen merkitystd. Kauneuden kokemusten kat- sottiin kuuluvan jokaisen lapsen, tulevan kansa- laisen, perusoikeuksiin. llmaisussa ja eldmyksis- sA ndhtiin koululaisen oppimishalun eli motivaa- tion perusta. Kaikki tdmd juurtui syvdlle sekii kou- l u j e n e t t A o p e t t a j a n k o u l u t u k s e n o p e t u k s e e n . Muuntumista ja muuttumista on kuitenkin tapah- tunut paljon 25 vuoden aikana. Nykyisin puhutaan taidekasvatuksesta. Entistii sel keiim mi n pu h utaan eri taiteenaloille ominaisten prosessien ja mate- riaalien opiskelusta, taitojen oppimisesta, har- joittelusta, harjaantumisesta sekd muusta tyypil- lisesti toiminnallisen tiedon omaksumisesta. On
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. r Nro r 1996
mysta arvoista ja paamaaristd. Niistd kohoaa kulloisenkin opetussuu nnitel man ydin. Tavoitteet ja valittu profiili mddriidvat muun.
N i i n p d M u s i i k k i k a s v a t u s - l e h d e n e n - simmiiisestii teemasta paatettaessa oli selviiii, ettd liikkeelleldhto tapahtuisi f ilosof ian merkeissd.
Aiheen valinnasta sitten johtui, eta vaikka Mu- siikkikasvatus onkin suomenkielinen lehti, ovat t i m d n e n s i m m d i s e n n u m e r o n p a i r i a r t i k k e l i t e n g l a n n i k s i . K e s k u s t e l u a m u s i i k k i k a s v a t u k s e n filosofiasta ei suomeksi ole vield vakavasti ottaen kdyty. Mutta epeiilemdtti se on alkamassa.
Lienee harvinaista, etta aikakausilehden yhdessd numerossa kirjoittaa kolme maailman t u n n e t u i m p i i n l u k e u t u v a a s u u n n a n n i i y t t a j a a . Pidartikkelimme kirjoittaja, kanadalais-amerik- kalainen professori David Elliott teki syksylki 1995 l u e n t o v i e r a i l u n S u o m e e n . H d n o n j t i s e n t d n y t a r t i k k e l i n s a n i i d e n k y s y m y s t e n n o j a a n , jo i t a luentoyleison joukosta kohosi. Yhdysvaltalainen professori Thomas Regelski ja Lontoon yliopis- ton professori Keith Swanwick esittdvdt vasta- puheenvuoronsa Elliottin iiskeniiin julkaistuun kirjaan "Music Matters". Samaista kirjaa on tdssd lehdessi suomeksi arvioinut professori Pentti Miiiittiinen. Musiikinopettaja Eija Lappalainen p u o l e s t a a n p o h d i s k e l e e , m i t A v i i m e v u o s i k y m - menten luetuimmilla musiikkikasvatuksen filoso- feilla olisi kiiytiin non musiiki nopettajalle annetta- vaa. Oulun uudessa koulutusyksikossd on alettu s e l v i t e l l i i , m i l l a i s i a t a u s t a f i l o s o f i o i t a s i k d l 6 i s i l l d m u s i i k k i k a s v a t u k s e n o p i s k e l i j o i l l a o n . A s i a s t a kenotaan prof. Heikki Ruismden tutkimusryhmdn artikkelissa. Oulussa toimii myos musiikin tohtori L e e n a H y v d n e n , j o n k a v d i t d s l e c t i o j u l k a i s t a a n tdssd lehdessd.
Musiikkikasvatus on musiikkikasvatuk- s e n e n s i m m i i i n e n t i e t e e l l i n e n a i k a k a u s i l e h t i Suomessa. Aloite lehden perustamisesta lirhti Si- belius-Akatem ian musiikkikasvatuksen osastolta.
Oulun yliopiston musiikkikasvatuksen koulutus- ja tutkimusyksikon kanssa osasto kantaa vastuun v u o d e n 1 9 9 6 a i k a n a il m e s t y v i s t d n u m e r o i s t a . T u l e v i e n n u m e r o i d e n a i h e p i i r e i s t d k e r r o t a a n taman lehden Ajankohtaista-palstalla. Opetus- tyon kdryttinnolle ja empiiriselle tutkimukselle on varattu aihepi irejii tuonnempana tulevissa nume- roissa. Lehden toinen numero ilmestyy syksyn arKana.
M u s i i k k i k a s v a t u s t u l e e ja t k o s s a o l e - maan selvdsti enemmdn suomenkielinen, kuin se on tdssd ensimmAisessdl numerossaan. Kuhun- kin tulevaan numeroon on ajateltu sijoittaa kes- k i m d d r i n y k s i m u u n k i e l i n e n a r t i k k e l i s e k a t a r - k e i m p i e n t e k s t i e n e n g l a n n i n k i e l i s e t t i i v i s t e l m a t . Tiivistelmat toimitetaan myos Internetiin, Sibelius- A k a t e m i a n j a O u l u n y l i o p i s t o n s i v u i l l e .
Eldvdn pedagogisen tyon kannalta on tarkeaa, ettd ammattikuntamme omanarvontunto, osaamisen tunne ja kehitystarpeet kohoavat. Ndin on kdymdssd. Murroksesta ja kaaoksesta sel- viytymiseen tarvitaan yhteyksid, tiivistd tuntumaa t i e t o o n , t u t k i m u k s e e n j a k r i i t t i s e e n a j a t u s t e n - v a i h t o o n . M u s i i k k i k a s v a t u s - l e h t i a i k o o p i t d i r l u k i j a n s a t a s s a s u h t e e s s a a j a n t a s a l l a . T o i m i - tuskunta tahtoo kehittad lehted sellaiseksi, ettd se koetaan yhteiseksi tiedon ;a ajatusten kana- vaksi maamme musiikkikasvatuksen moninaisilla s e k t o r e i l l a . L u k i j o i d e m m e t u k i , k r i t i i k k i j a e h - dotukset ovat tassa mielessii hvvin tervetulleita.
Marjut Laitinen
FjME Vol. r No r 1996
David J. Elliott
Music Education in Finland:
A new philosophical view
During October, 1995, I had the privilege of visiting Finland to present a series of lectures at the Sibelius Academy and at the University of Jyvdskyld. My audiences on these occasions i n c l u d e d m u s i c p r o f e s s o r s f r o m v a r i o u s d e p a r t m e n t s w i t h i n t h e s e in s t i t u t i o n s , u n d e r - graduate and graduate music education students and in-service music teachers at all levels of instruction from many areas of Finland.
The overall intention of my presentations w a s t o e x p l a i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l dimensions of a new "praxial" (or action-centered) philosophy of music education that I detail in Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (Elliott, 1995). I believe it is reasonable to call this effort a "new" philosophy because its foundations and recommendations for music teaching and l e a r n i n g d i f f e r f u n d a m e n t a l l y f r o m t h e conventional philosophy of "music education as aesthetic education"that my esteemed colleagues B e n n e t t R e i m e r ( 1 9 7 0 / 1 9 8 9 ) a n d K e i t h Swanwick (1976) have advocated for many years and that has influenced music education in many parts of the world, including Finland.
More specifically, my presentations were designed to offer a perspective on the nature and value of music and music education that might assist Finnish music teachers. music curriculum developers, and university-level music teacher educators concerned with the myriad theoretical and practical details that swirl around three basic questions: Music Education in Finland -- Whv?
What? and How?
In the course of addressing questions during my presentations, talking with Finnish
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. r Nro r 1996
music educators before, during, and after these presentations, and visiting several different sites of music teaching and learning (which advanced my understanding of Finnish music education well beyond the knowledge I had gained on my two previous visits to this beautifully musical country), I noted several topics of concern that my Finnish colleagues raised with regularity: namely, What kinds of music should be taught and learned in Finnish school music programs? What degree of emphasis should be placed on the achievement of musical"standards of excellence" in school and community-based music programs? Should music teachers participate in "integrating" music with other subjects "across the school curriculum"?
What qualifications should music teachers strive for and possess?
Taken together, these questions and issues constilute a fascinating yet difficult web of challenges for anyone who takes a serious interest in music education. In an attemot to meet these challenges and, hopefully, resolve successfully at least some of the above issues and questions, I will combine several themes and arguments from recent research efforts (i.e., Elliott, 1993a, 1993b, 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 6 b ) w i t h n o t e s a n d reflections I generated during and after my recent experiences in Finland.
Please understand, however, that this
effort in philosophical (i.e., critical) thinking intends
to deliver nothing more or less (in this limited
s p a c e ) t h a n a r e a s o n a b l e p o s i t i o n o n s o m e
aspects of the very complex human endeavor we
c a l l " m u s i c e d u c a t i o n " f r o m th e v i e w p o i n t o f
someone who knows something (but by no means
everything) of the special circumstances of and
social-cultural forces that act for and against music education in Finland.
With these preliminaries out of the way, where shall we begin to build reasonable answers to the broad and specific questions listed above?
To me, the logical starting point is the nature of m u s r c .
The Nature of Music
A s I p r o f f e r e l s e w h e r e ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 4 , 1995, 1996a), there is a self-evident fact lying b e h i n d , b e n e a t h a n d a r o u n d o u r m u s i c a l involvements that provides us with an indisputable starting point for saying what music is: namely, human action. Without some form of intentional h u m a n a c t i o n , t h e r e c a n b e n e i t h e r m u s i c a l sounds, nor "works" of musical sound. In short, what music is, at root, is a human activity. Here is a certain starting point that leads to a multi-part way of saying what music is and why it matters.
Let me explain.
In the case of (say) Beethoven's Eroica, or the kete drumming of the Asante people, or a Zuni lullaby, or Duke Ellington's Cotton Tail, and in every example of a musical product that comes to mind, what we are presented with is more than a piece of music, a composition, an improvisa- tion, a performance, or a "work of artl'What we are presented with is the outcome of a particular kind of intentional human action. Music is not sim- ply a collection of products, pieces, or objects.
Fundamentally, music is something that people oo.
Several points follow from the above.
First, if music is essentially a form of intentional h u m a n a c t i o n , t h e n m u s i c m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y involve at least three dimensions:a doer or maker, the product he or she makes, and the activity whereby he or she makes her product. But this is obviously incomplete;for in any instance of human activity doers do what they do in a specific context.
Moreover, musical doing always includes another kind of doing called music listening. Music makers listen to what they do and make and to what other musicers do and make. Also, for each kind of music making there is a group of people who act specifically as listeners (auditors, or audiences) for the musical products of that kind
Musiikkikasvaffs Vsk. r Nro r 1996
o f m u s i c i n g . M u s i c l i s t e n i n g i s , t h e r e f o r e , a n essential thread that binds musicers, musicing and musical products together. Taking the above t h o u g h t s t o g e t h e r w e s e e t h a t " m u s i c " i s a multidimensional human phenomenon involving two interlocking forms of intentional human action:
music making and music listening. These actions are not merely linked;they are mutually defining a n d r e i n f o r c i n g . L e t u s c a l l th e h u m a n r e a l i t y formed by this interlocking relationship a musical oractice.
M u s i c m a k e r s a r e D r a c t i t i o n e r s o f a human practice called MUSIC that has various sub-practices, sub-specialties, or arts of music that go by such names as jazz, Baroque music, rock music, Finnish traditional music, and so on.
T h e s u b d i v i s i o n s , o f c o u r s e , c o n t i n u e . F o r example, what we commonly call"jazz" is really a cluster of related musical sub-practices that go by such names as dixieland, swing, bebop, cool and hard bop. (We could follow a similar process of subdivision for choral practices, opera, Finnish traditional music, and so on).
The fundamental theme I wish to draw from this discussion, and emphasize strongly, is the following:MUSIC is a diverse human practice.
W o r l d w i d e , t h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s o f m u s i c a l practices, or "Musics." Each musical practice pivots on the shared understandings of musicers who are practitioners (amateur or professional) of that practice. As a result, each musical practice produces music in the sense of specific kinds of m u s i c a l p r o d u c t s o r m u s i c a l w o r k s . T h e s e p r o d u c t s a r e i d e n t i f i a b l e a s t h e o u t c o m e s o f particular musical practices because they evince (manifest, or demonstrate) the shared principles and standards of the musical practitioners who make them.This is how we know Barooue choral singing, bebop jazz improvisation (and so on) when we hear them: by the stylistic features m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e m u s i c a l s o u n d p a t t e r n s themselves. Specific musical practices eventuate in specific musical styles.
A u s e f u l w a y t o t i e t h e s e th o u g h t s together is to alter the visual form of the word
"music" in three different ways ---- MUSIC, Music, a n d m u s i c . M U S I C ( u p p e r c a s e ) i s a d i v e r s e h u m a n p r a c t i c e c o n s i s t i n g i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t musical practices or Musics (uppercase M). Each and every musical practice (or Music) involves the t w o c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n d m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g
activities of music makir word music (lowercas works that eventuate fr(
of the practitioners v\
c o m p o s e , a r r a n g e , o r practice.
M e n t i o n o f " l brings us to the next key is the nature of "musical or "musical understanr c a n a n s w e r t h i s adequately, then we c one of the most fundam i n m u s i c e d u c a t i o n : w worth teaching and lea
Music Education:
What ShallWeTeach?
tn essen worldwide depend on t listeners knowing how construct successive a sound patterns artist Competent, proficient : are people who have I and chain musical patte how to vary and tran creatively; how to judge c o n - s t r u c t i o n s i n r e l i traditions of musical prz emotional expressiven ano so on.
ln short, music a matter of procedural say "essentially" becau argue that four other I contribute to the proc, making in a variety of tr m o m e n t . B u t w h a t a b l i s t e n i n g ?
A l l a c t s o f n involve music listening.
a matter of know-how, in the sense of intern€
i s s o , I s u g g e s t , b experience of a music static object waiting "c an apple on a tree. Listr What we experience i
activities of music making and music listening.The word music (lowercase) refers to the musical works that eventuate from the musical knowledge o f t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s w h o p e r f o r m , im p r o v i s e , c o m p o s e , a r r a n g e , o r c o n d u c t in a p a r t i c u l a r oractice.
M e n t i o n o f " k n o w l e d g e "
brings us to the next key issue. What is the nature of "musical knowledge"
or "musical understanding"? lf we c a n a n s w e r t h i s o u e s t i o n adequately, then we can address one of the most fundamental issues i n m u s i c e d u c a t i o n : w h a t i s m o s t worth teaching and learning?
Music Education:
What Shall We Teach?
ln essence, all musical practices worldwide depend on music makers and music listeners knowing how to interpret and overtly construct successive and simultaneous musical s o u n d p a t t e r n s a r t i s t i c a l l y ( c f . E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 3 ) . Competent, proficient and expert music makers are people who have learned how to construct and chain musical patterns together expressively, h o w to v a r y a n d t r a n s f o r m m u s i c a l p a t t e r n s creatively;how to judge the quality of their musical c o n - s t r u c t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o s t a n d a r d s a n d traditions of musical practice; how to interpret the emotional expressiveness of musical patterns;
and so on.
In short, musical knowledge is essentially a matter of procedural (or action) knowledge. I say "essentially" because it seems reasonable to argue that four other kinds of musical knowing contribute to the procedural essence of music making in a variety of ways, as I shall explain in a m o m e n t . B u t w h a t a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f m u s i c listening?
A l l a c t s o f m u s i c p e r f o r m i n g a l w a y s involve music listening. And music listening is also a matter of know-how, or procedural knowledge, in the sense of internal (mental) know-how. This i s s o , I s u g g e s t , b e c a u s e o u r c o n s c i o u s experience of a musical work is not a copy of a static object waiting "out there" to be picked like an apple on a tree. Listening is a matter of minding.
What we experience as a musical performance
( l i v e o r r e c o r d e d ) i n v o l v e s v a r i o u s k i n d s o f
"information" that arise in consciousness through interactions between (i) our powers of attention, cognition, emotion, intention and memory and (ii) the artistically created aural patterns we call a musical work.
What we can say, then, is that m u s i c li s t e n i n g i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a matter of knowing how to coverlly c o n s t r u c t s u c c e s s i v e a n d simultaneous musical sound patterns i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d s o f s p e c i f i c m u s i c a l practices. Competent, proficient and expert music listeners are people who h a v e d e v e l o p e d th e p r o c e d u r a l k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e d t o i d e n t i f y , i n t e r p r e t , " p i e c e t o g e t h e r " a n d otherwise cognize (or make sense of) p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f m u s i c a l p a t t e r n s . A g a i n , however, four other kinds of musical knowledge contribute to the procedural essence of music listening in a variety of ways (see below).
T h i s b r i n g s u s t o a n e s s e n t i a l relationship: the procedural dimension of music making and the procedural dimension of music listening are two sides of the same cognitive coin.
W h i l e m u s i c m a k i n g i n v o l v e s th e o v e r t construction of musical patterns, music listening i n v o l v e s t h e c o v e r t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m u s i c a l p a t t e r n s . ( W h e r e a s a l l f o r m s o f m u s i c m a k i n g involve the constructive ex-pression of musical relationships, all forms of music listening involve t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e i m - o r e s s i o n o f m u s i c a l relationships). What this means, in turn, is that people who know how to listen intelligently for a particular style of music (e.9., Bebop, Balinese G a m e l a n m u s i c , o r F i n n i s h t r a d i t i o n a l s i n g i n g ) possess the same kinds of knowing that artistic music makers depend on to interpret and perform that style of music. In this view, there is a direct and intimate relationship between music making and music listening.
Let me restate what I have just written.
Whenever a person (child or adult) is performing and/or listening for music effectively, he or she is exhibiting a multidimensional form of knowledge c a l l e d m u s i c i a n s h i p ( w h i c h a l w a y s in c l u d e s listenership). Musicianship demonstrates itself in a c t i o n s , n o t w o r d s . lt i s a f o r m o f p r o c e d u r a l knowledge, or what Schon (1983, 1990) also calls
"thinking-in-action" and "knowing-in-actionl'
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Thus it is entirely appropriate to describe competent, proficient and expert performers (children or adults) as thinking very hard and very deeply (but tacitly) as they perform (or improvise) m u s i c . M u s i c m a k e r s e x h i b i t t h e i r m u s i c a l knowledge -- their musicianship --- in the quality of what they get done in and through their actions o f s i n g i n g o r p l a y i n g . T h u s , th e p r o o f o f m y m u s i c i a n s h i p l i e s in t h e q u a l i t y o f m y m u s i c making as a performer (improviser, composer, arranger, or conductor). And to understand and assess the quality of my musicianship as exhibited in my music performing, my evaluators (and other listeners) must possess a reasonable level of p r o c e d u r a l c o m p e t e n c y i n m u s i c p e r f o r m i n g themselves.
But while musicianship is procedural in essence, four other kinds of musical knowing contribute to this essence in surrounding and supporting ways. The names I give to these four kinds of knowing are: formal musical knowledge, i n f o r m a l m u s i c a l k n o w l e d g e , i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c m u s i c a l k n o w l e d g e , a n d s u p e r v i s o r y m u s i c a l knowledge.
Any sort of verbal information about music is a matter of formal musical knowledge.
Most musical practices are sufficiently complex that music makers and listeners utilize historical facts, verbal descriptions of techniques, theoretical ideas about musical structure (and so on) to a d v a n c e t h e i r n o n v e r b a l t h i n k i n g - i n - a c t i o n a s o e r f o r m e r s a n d a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s . W i t h th e guidance of competent teachers, students learn t o r e f l e c t o n t h e c a u s e s o f t h e i r
musical successes and failures in the c o u r s e o f t h i n k i n g - i n - a c t i o n a s p r o d u c t i v e m u s i c a l a p p r e n t i c e s . Students learn how to target their attention to different aspects of their musical thinking-in-action in relation to verbal concepts.
Informal musical knowledge involves the ability to reflect critically i n a c t i o n . R e f l e c t i n g c r i t i c a l l y
depends, in turn, on knowing when and how to make musical judgments. And knowing how to make musical judgments depends on a situational understanding of the standards and traditions of musical practice that ground and surround specific kinds of music making.
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. r Nro r 1996
Critical ref lecting-in-action is f undamental to musicianship because music making and music l i s t e n i n g a r e n o t s i m p l e m a t t e r s o f " h a b i t s , behaviors, routines, or skillsl'Why not? Because musicing and listening cannot be reduced to verifiable methods that always work and that can a l w a y s b e e x p r e s s e d i n w o r d s . P r i n c i p l e s o f musicing and listening, like chess strategies, do n o t g u a r a n t e e s u c c e s s . T h e y a r e a l w a y s p r o v i s i o n a l . T h e effectiveness, f l e x i b i l i t y a n d portability of musicianship hinges on the critical selection and deployment of all forms of musical knowing.
Another basic component of musician- ship is impressionistic musical knowledge. This kind of knowing is often called musical "intuitionl' In practice, impressionistic musical knowledge is a strongly felt sense that one line of musical action is better than another, or not quite right, and so on. Music makers and listeners acquire nonverbal impressions, or a "sense of thingsj'while doing, m a k i n g , a n d r e f l e c t i n g - i n - a c t i o n . T o d e v e l o p musicianship is, in part, to develop a student's
"feel" for what "counts" in musical situations. Put another way, musicianship includes "cognitive emotions" for the musicing, listening and musical works of specific musical practices.
Supervisory knowledge is sometimes called metaknowledge or metacognition.This form of musical knowing includes the disposition and a b i l i t y t o m o n i t o r , a d j u s t , b a l a n c e , m a n a g e , oversee, and otherwise regulate one's musical thinking both in action ("in-the-moment")and over
the long-term development of one's musicianship.B a s e d o n t h e p r o p o s a l s made thus far it seems fair to suggest that a oerson who knows how to make music and how to listen for music competently (proficiently, or e x p e r t l y ) p o s s e s s e s m u s i c a l knowledge or musical understanding in the robust sense of a "working understanding" of music. And clearly, a " w o r k i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g " o f m u s i c i n c l u d e s practical principles and the ability to make effective judgments about one's actions in relation to the applicable standards, traditions, obligations and ethics of a given musical practice.
L e t m e s u m m implications of this discus Recall. first. thatfourof th t h a t c o n s t i t u t e m u s i c i i i nformal, impressionistic k n o w l e d g e - - - are ess situated. Accordingly, as I also suggests, to develol reouires that music edu m u s i c m a k i n g " a t th e teaching-learning experi
l n t e r m s o l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e n , m u design and implement p i m m e r s e m u s i c s t u d e l students) in musical prac a u t h e n t i c m u s i c m a k i development ought to ta verbal concepts, not fr(
qualities j'and not from re musical thinking-in-actio i m p r o v i s i n g p r i m a r i l y , arranging and conductin
Second, learnit intelligently for the musir r e o u i r e s t h a t s t u d e n t s
" i n s i d e " o f m u s i c a l o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s " ( S c h o n , require students to listen they make themselves ensemble), students lea of musicing and listening terms of cause-effect, w c o m p a r i s o n - c o n t r a s t prod uctio n-i nterpretatior
Another way of is to say that music liste to be taught and learne r o o m s i t u a t i o n s t h a t deliberately organize t m a t e t h e p r o d u c t i v e a u t h e n t i c m u s i c a l p r a t name I give to this kind c learning situation is cur practicum (cf. Elliott, 1 c u r r i c u l u m b a s e d o n : serves to contextualize and its component knov curriculum based on sy proficient music makinl center of the belief syst
I O
L e t m e s u m m a r i z e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l implications of this discussion to the present point.
Recall, first, that four of the five kinds of knowledge t h a t c o n s t i t u t e m u s i c i a n s h i p - - - p r o c e d u r a l , informal, impressionistic and supervisory musical k n o w l e d g e - - - are essentially n o n v e r b a l a n d situated. Accordingly, as Howard Gardner (1991) also suggests, to develop musical understanding requires that music educators place productive m u s i c m a k i n g " a t t h e c e n t e r " o f t h e m u s i c teaching-learning experience (pp. 238-239).
l n t e r m s o f m u s i c c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e n , m u s i c e d u c a t o r s n e e d t o design and implement programs that induct and i m m e r s e m u s i c s t u d e n t s (i n d e e d , a l l m u s i c students) in musical practices through active and a u t h e n t i c m u s i c m a k i n g . M u s i c c u r r i c u l u m development ought to take its direction not from verbal concepts, not from so-called "aesthetic qualities j'and not from recordings, but rather from musical thinking-in-action: from performing and i m p r o v i s i n g p r i m a r i l y , a n d f r o m c o m p o s i n g , arranging and conducting whenever possible.
S e c o n d , l e a r n i n g t o l i s t e n d e e p l y a n d intelligently for the music of a particular practice r e q u i r e s t h a t s t u d e n t s le a r n m u s i c f r o m t h e
" i n s i d e " o f m u s i c a l o r a c t i c e s : a s " r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i t i o n e r s " ( S c h o n , 1 9 9 0 ) . W h e n t e a c h e r s require students to listen artistically for the music t h e y m a k e th e m s e l v e s ( a n d w i t h o t h e r s in a n ensemble), students learn how different aspects of musicing and listening relate to one another in terms of cause-effect, whole-part, form-function, c o m p a r i s o n - c o n t r a s t a n o
production-interpretation relations.
Another way of putting this is to say that music listening ought to be taught and learned in class- r o o m s i t u a t i o n s th a t t e a c h e r s d e l i b e r a t e l y o r g a n i z e t o a p p r o x i - m a t e t h e p r o d u c t i v e g o a l s o f a u t h e n t i c m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e name I give to this kind of teaching- learning situation is curriculum-as-
p r a c t i c u m ( c f . E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 5 , p . 253ff). A m u s i c c u r r i c u l u m b a s e d o n a u t h e n t i c m u s i c m a k i n g serves to contextualize and situate listenership and its component knowings. A music education curriculum based on systematic efforts to teach proficient music making places students at the center of the belief systems that ground different
musical practices. In this view, artistic listening -- - l i s t e n i n g f o r w h a t o n e i s a t t e m p t i n g t o d o musically through performing, improvising and so o n - - - i s t h e p r i m a r y f o r m o f l i s t e n i n g i n m u s i c e d u c a t i o n . A r t i s t i c l i s t e n i n g i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d authentic musical problem-finding and problem- s o l v i n g . I n a l l t h e s e w a y s , a g e n e r a l m u s i c curriculum centered on productive and authentic m u s i c m a k i n g p r o v i d e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d challenges students need to develop critical and i n t u i t i v e m u s i c a l d i s p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e m u s i c o f ditferent musical practices.
What oractices? Should music students i n F i n l a n d l e a r n to m a k e a n d l i s t e n t o F i n n i s h traditional musics, Western "classical" musics, and other musical practices whenever possible? Yes, yes, and yes. Let me explain.
What Musics Shall We Teach?
As I have argued above, and in different d e t a i l s e l s e w h e r e ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 6 a ) , M U S I C is a diverse human practice and, therefore, "music e d u c a t i o n " i s ( o r s h o u l d b e ) c o n c e r n e d w i t h M U S I C in t h i s b r o a d s e n s e ( a s o p p o s e d to teaching just, say, one or two Western "art-music"
practices, or just jazz practices, and so on).
But if this is so, then music teachers have good reasons to ask: How shall we go aboul selecting musical practices for music teaching and learning? Are some musical practices"better"than others? Does it make sense to select musical
oractices on the basis of students' cultural traditions?
L e t m e a p p r o a c h t h e s e questions by observing that it is not uncommon to find people who believe strongly that all Western European
" c l a s s i c a l " p r a c t i c e s a r e i n h e r e n t l y superior to (say) rock, pop, or avant- garde practices. Others want to claim that "folk music" is inherently "natural"
and "honest" while jazz is inherently
" b a d m u s i c l ' A n d s o o n .
W h a t c a n w e m a k e o f s u c h ta l k ? T o answer, suppose we attempt to decide which is
" b e s t " a m o n g t h r e e d i f f e r e n t M u s i c s : ( s a y ) Baroque instrumental music, a piece of Finnish t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c . a n d a w o r k o f
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k a r n a t a k a s a n g e e t a ( S o u t h I n d i a n c l a s s i c a l m u s i c ) . T o d e c i d e w h i c h i s " t h e b e s t m u s i c a l practice" we would have to base our judgments on (i) the values and standards of one of these t h r e e p r a c t i c e s , o r o n ( i i ) th e s t a n d a r d s o f a completely unrelated musical practice, or on (iii) the standards of no musical oractice whatever.
But of course, the first option is ethno- centric. And the second ootion is nonsensical. And the third option is unmusical by definition. In sum, no musical practice or music-culture is innately better than any other. Musicing and its outcomes are always practice-specific. Just as it is illogical to debate whether apples are better than oranges, it is also illogical to debate whether a Bach cello sonata is"bette/'than a Finnish instrumental tune, or a piece of karnataka san-geeta. There is no
"best" musical practice or style compared across different musical practices. (But of course, there are reasonable ways of deciding the merits ot different musical works within the same musical practice).
Ethnomusicologists Mark Slobin and Jeft Todd Titon (1984) agree.
Each music-culture is a particular adap- tation to particular circumstances. ldeas about music, social organization, repertoires, and mu- sic's material culture vary from one music-culture to the next, but it would be foolish to say that any o n e m u sic-cu ltu re was "beft e r" th an anoth e r. Why ? Because such a judgment is based on criteriafrom inside a single music-culture. To call another mu- sic-culture's music "pilmitive" imposes ones own standards on a group that does not
recognize them. (p.9)
B u t w h i l e n o o n e M u s i c i s innately superior to any other, some m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s m a y b e educationally more appropriate than o t h e r s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , m u s i c e d u c a t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r in a vacuum, but rather in relation to a variety of constraints --- practical, social, cultural, ideological, political
and so on. Chief among these is the practical problem of curricular time. There is simply not enough time to teach all the world's Musics to all children. Thus, difficult choices must be made. Let me propose several guidelines for making such choices.
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. r Nro r 1996
First, the musical practices we select for music teaching and learning at the outset of a child's musical education ought to make the most o f t h e t a c i t d i m e n s i o n s o f m u s i c i a n s h i p - - - - p r o c e d u r a l , i n f o r m a l , i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a n d supervisory musical knowings --- that children are most likely to develop themselves through early m u s i c i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g i n t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l contexts. (Here is one key reason for teaching the c h i l d r e n o f F i n l a n d b o t h W e s t e r n c l a s s i c a l practices and Finnish musical traditions). As I explain below, and in a parallel context (Elliott, 1996a), to achieve the primary values of music education, students must learn to achieve a match b e t w e e n th e i r l e v e l o f m u s i c i a n s h i o a n d t h e musical challenges they meet in music education c u r r i c u l a . P u t a n o t h e r w a y , in d e c i d i n g w h i c h practices to teach first, teachers ought to take account of a student's "local" musical culture. For t h e m u s i c a l k n o w i n g s t h a t i n f a n t s a n d y o u n g children achieve on their own amount to a bridge between young brains and young musical minds.
Second, achieving the primary values and aims of music education (see below) depends on the continuous deepening of musicianship in b a l a n c e d r e l a t i o n t o i n c r e a s i n g l y d e m a n d i n g musical works. The most important "life-values"
o f m u s i c a n d m u s i c e d u c a t i o n a r i s e t h r o u g h engagements with progressively more challenging m u s i c a l w o r k s . M o r e o v e r , a s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Francis Sparshott (1987) reminds us, people for whom the music of their own culture is all the music there is "can live into that music as people of broader culture cannot: their musical world is a
cultural entity that belongs to them and to which they belong" (p. 86).
This sense of musical belonging (a practice-specific way of musical life) i s s o m e t h i n g t o b e c h e r i s h e d . I n s h o r t , m u s i c a l b r e a d t h is n o t necessarily a virtue.
Accordingly, when time and resources are limited, this praxial philosophy supports an emphasis on m u s i c a l d e o t h o v e r b r e a d t h . O u r
c e n t r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( t o d e e p e n s t u d e n t s ' m u s i c i a n s h i p ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t m u s i c e d u c a t i o n curricula ought to build on a foundation of several c l o s e l y r e l a t e d m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t s p i r a l upward in the demands they make on students' growing musicianship. Once established, music c u r r i c u l a m a y t h e n " m o v e o u t " t o w a r d m o r eunfamiliar oractices.
I n d e e d ( a r cause MUSIC is a divers b e c a u s e i n d u c t i o n i n t r practices links the values, t h e v a l u e s o f h u m a n i s teachers ought to make an curricula for music-culturer r e l a t e d to t h e c u l t u r musicianshio that childre context of their culture. T the obvious criteria of s availability of authentic rep k n o w l e d g e a n d / o r d i s p practices over time, it als the musical diversity of onr a s a l a u n c h i n g p a d to
"distant" Musics.
For example, se gates to a recent confer music educators sugges music curriculum for their include five broadly baser Australia's musical pluralis practices, Asian music prar historic and contempora oractices and Australian p r a c t i c e s . M a y I s u g g e s thinking may also apply i Finland, or lreland? Inde, narily long, varied, and ric ditional music making, I e when I hear a Finnish m about the central (and righ of Finnish traditional music in Finnish music educatio
lmplicit in the a key tenet ol multiculturt another imoortant criterir lecting among musical ; recognition. Personal an r e c o g n i t i o n a r e e s s e n t growth and education of tl t h e p h i l o s o p h e r C h a r l t (1992) points out, recog s e l f - i d e n t i t y . A s t u d e n l personal self -awareness f u ndamental defining chi being" (p.25). Taylor argu o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y r e r d e l i b e r a t e a n d a c c u
t 2
unfamiliar practices.
I n d e e d (a n d p a r a d o x i c a l l y ) , b e - cause MUSIC is a diverse human practice, and b e c a u s e i n d u c t i o n i n t o u n f a m i l i a r m u s i c a l oractices links the values of music education with t h e v a l u e s o f h u m a n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n , m u s i c teachers ought to make an important place in their curricula for music-cultures that are moredistantly r e l a t e d to t h e c u l t u r e - s o e c i f i c f o r m s o f musicianship that children develop early in the context of their culture. Thus, and in addition to t h e o b v i o u s c r i t e r i a o f s t u d e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s , t h e availability of authentic repertoire, and a teachers k n o w l e d g e a n d / o r d i s p o s i t i o n to l e a r n n e w practices over time, it also makes sense to use the musical diversity of one's own region or nation a s a l a u n c h i n g p a d t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f m o r e
"distant" Musics.
For example, several Australian dele- gates to a recent conference of Asian Pacific music educators suggested that a reasonable music curriculum for their national situation might include five broadly based practices reflective of Australia's musical pluralism : Australian Aboriginal practices, Asian music practices, Pacific practices, historic and contemporary Western European practices and Australian "folk" (or "crossover") practices. May I suggest that this pattern of thinking may also apply in the contexts of, say, Finland, or lreland? Indeed, given the extraordi- narily long, varied, and rich history of Finnish tra- ditional music making, I am (frankly) astonished when I hear a Finnish music educator hesitate about the central (and rightf ul) place
of Finnish traditional music oractices in Finnish music education.
lmplicit in the above is a k e y te n e t o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m a n d another imoortant criterion for se- l e c t i n g a m o n g m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s : recognition. Personal and cultural r e c o g n i t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e growth and education of the Self. As t h e p h i l o s o p h e r C h a r l e s T a y l o r
(1992) points out, recognition is closely tied to s e l f - i d e n t i t y . A s t u d e n t ' s i d e n t i t y i n c l u d e s a personal self-awareness of who they are, "of their fundamental defining characteristics as a human being" (p.25). Taylor argues that the development o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y r e s t s i m - p o r t a n t l y o n t h e d e l i b e r a t e a n d a c c u r a t e re c o g n i t i o n ( o r
affirmation) of people's cultural beliefs and values.
When recognition is withheld, or dishonest, the consequences can De grave:
a person or a group of people can suffer real dam- age, real distortion, if the people or society around them mirror back to them a confining or demean- ing or contemptible picture of themselves.
Nonrecognition or misrecognition can inflict harm, can be a form of oppression, imprisoning some- one in a false, distorted, and reduced mode of being. (Taylor, 1992, p.25).
Indeed, there is no doubt that people tend to identify themselves with particular Music(s), and a people's Music is, very often, something they are. lf so, then recognizing the traditional music- cultures of one's students and one's community may contribute significantly to self-identity. As Taylor (1992) emphasizes: "Due recognition is not just a courtesy we owe to people. lt is a vital
human need" (p.26).
Music Education:Why?
T o t h i s p o i n t in m y d i s c u s s i o n I h a v e suggested several important social-cultural values t h a t s t u d e n t s c a n a c h i e v e t h r o u g h a c t i v e involvements with MUSIC as a diverse human practice. But there are additional and equally i m p o r t a n t b e n e f i t s t h a t s t u d e n t s c a n a c h i e v e through the development of musicianship that I c a l l " l i f e - v a l u e s " : s e l f - g r o w t h , s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , e n j o y m e n t ( o r o p t i m a l e x p e r i e n c e ) a n d s e l f - e s t e e m ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 5 , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 9 ) . H o w c a n m u s i c s t u d e n t s a c h i e v e t h e s e e s s e n t i a l l i f e - v a l u e s t h r o u g h m u s i c making (by which I mean performing a n d i m p r o v i s i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r , a n d c o m p o s i n g , a r r a n g i n g , a n d c o n - ducting whenever possible) and music l i s t e n i n g ?
Most musical practices offer m u s i c m a k e r s t h e t w o n e c e s s a r y conditions for achieving the life-values of self-growth, self-knowledge, optimal experience, and sellesteem: (i) multidimensional cognitive-affective challenges (i.e., musical works) a n d ( i i ) t h e k n o w - l e d g e ( i . e . , m u s i c i a n s h i p ) required to meet these challenges. Musicianship is the key to achieving the life-values of music m a k i n g . A n d m u s i c i a n - s h i p c a n b e t a u g h t a n d l e a r n e d .
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A l s o , li k e m a n y "o p t i m a l e x p e r i e n c e pursuits," most (but not all) musical practices are
"dynamic" practices. Why? Because the musical works that make up the body of most musical practices spiral upward in complexity. Dynamic m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s i n v i t e a n d d e m a n d t h e progressive matching of increasingly
c o m p l e x m u s i c a l c h a l l e n g e s w i t h increasing levels of musicianship. The t r a d i t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d s o f e a c h m u s i c a l o r a c t i c e d e t e r m i n e w h a t counts as the proper artistic goals of music making in that practice.
F o r e x a m p l e , m u s i c educators who teach in the context of children's choirs know the traditions and standards of children's choral music. They know what counts as
good (very good and excellent) choral singing in a particular practice and, therefore, what the a p p r o p r i a t e g o a l s a n d s t a n d a r d s o f s t u d e n t singers should be at beginning to expert levels of development. By increasing students' strategic musical judgment abilities, music teachers enable their students to set short-term and long-term musical goals for themselves.This, in turn, makes students independently able to recognize what c o u n t s a s m u s i c a l f e e d b a c k a n d m u s i c a l excellence.
From the perspective of this "praxial"
philosophy of music education, learning to perform a n d / o r i m p r o v i s e m u s i c w e l l ( w h i c h a l w a y s involves a comprehensive understanding of the musical work one is interpreting and performing) i s i n h e r e n t l y v a l u a b l e . P e r f o r m i n g m u s i c i s s o m e t h i n g w o r t h d o i n g f o r t h e d o i n g i t s e l f , meaning "for the sake of the self." (So too for all o t h e r f o r m s o f m u s i c m a k i n g : im p r o v i s i n g , composing, arranging, and conducting). When a person's level of musicianship (beginner to expert) is matched with an appropriate level of musical challenge, this matching of musical knowledge a n d m u s i c a l c h a l l e n g e b r i n g s o r d e r t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e a f f e c t i v e p a y o f f o f t h i s matching relationship is experienced as musical enjoyment or "flow," a term coined by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and explained in regard to music in my Music Matters (Elliott, 1995, pp.
113-124).
M u s i c m a k i n g is a u n i q u e a n d m a j o r s o u r c e o f s e l f - g r o w t h , s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ( o r
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c o n s t r u c t i v e k n o w l e d g e ) , a n d f l o w . E v e n fo r students who are just beginning to internalize the standards of a musical practice, and who are just b e g i n n i n g t o d e p l o y t h e i r m u s i c a l t h i n k i n g - i n - action, performing in a practice-specific musical context (e.9., performing specific types of choral music, Finnish traditional instrument- al music, jazz, and so on) provides second-by-second feedback about h o w w e l l th e y a r e m u s i c i n g . O f c o u r s e , p e r f o r m i n g a l s o p r o v i d e s proficient, competent, and expert music makers with feedback about how well they are making music in relation to the goals and standards of the musical practices they know so well.
W h e n a p e r s o n ' s l e v e l o f musicianship matches a given musical challenge, his or her powers of consciousness are completely engaged. Consciousness and action merge to
" t a k e us up" into the actions o f p e r f o r m i n g ; accordingly, performing done well (according to the artistic traditions and standards of a given m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e ) e n g a g e s t h e w h o l e s e l f . Performing is valuable and significant because it propels the individual Self to higher levels of c o m p l e x i t y . T h a t i s , a s a student's l e v e l o f musicianship progresses upward in complexity to meet the demands of increasingly challenging works, all aspects of consciousness are propelled upward.
There is a great deal more to say about the nature of musical works as multidimensional challenges and the artistic "problems" involved in the performance, interpretation, and improvisation of musical works. I address these issues at many points in Music Matters (Elliott, 1995, e.9., pp. 198- 201). Suffice it to say now that musical works are never a matter of "sound patterns" alone; instead, musical works always presentseveral dimensions of musical-cultural meaning to the knowledgeable performer and listener.
In summary, each form of musicing offers a unique and major opportunity to develop the m u s i c i a n s h i p ( a n d listenership) t h a t s t u d e n t s require to achieve the life-values of self-growth, self-knowledge, and optimal experience, both now and in the future. And to the extent that these v a l u e s a r e a c h i e v e d i n a n d t h r o u g h th e development of musicianship, musicing is also a
unrque ?no m?jor w3! i For these reasons, ml worth learning to do \,r students.
Mention of ma i s s u e o f m u s i c a l - e e x o e c t a t i o n s o f a c Suffice it to say here the responsibility of the mu to exoect his or her stud for and achieve reasoni m u s i c a l e x c e l l e n c e o basis. Why? Because s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , f l o v esteem do not result a n d m e e t i n g t r i v i a l p r i m a r y v a l u e s o f m r listening result from the investment of musiciar solving that spirals "t relation to recognized s musical practice. In prar of music education wi teachers merely enter s t u d e n t s m e r e l y d a l p r o d u c i n g a c t i v i t i e s enjoyment arise from oowers of consciousn knowledgeable effort. V teaching and learning ir result from learning to n works well --- from the oursuit of musical con expertise. To pursue r pursue self-growth, cor enjoyment.
In summary, t e d u c a t i o n i s t o d e v e musicianshio of all stur musical problem solvir appropriate musical ch w a y . l t i s t h e b a l a m u s i c i a n s h i p w i t h c a challenges (i.e., excel results in the achieve another way: self-gro' m u s i c a l e n j o y m e n t education overall and music teaching-learnir
Howard Garc
o o s i t i o n w h e n h e st,
unique and major way of developing self-esteem.
For these reasons, music making is something worth learning to do well (i.e., artistically) by all students.
Mention of makino music\ryell" raises the
i s s u e o f m u s i c a l - e d u c a t i o n a l
e x o e c t a t i o n s o f a c h i e v e m e n t . Suffice it to say here that it is a basic responsibility of the music educator to exoect his or her students to strive for and achieve reasonable levels of m u s i c a l e x c e l l e n c e o n a r e g u l a r basis. Why? Because self-growth, s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , f l o w a n d s e l f - esteem do not result from setting a n d m e e t i n g t r i v i a l g o a l s . T h e p r i m a r y v a l u e s o f m u s i c i n g a n d listening result from the continuous
investment of musicianship in musical problem- s o l v i n g t h a t s p i r a l s " u p w a r d " i n c o m p l e x i t y i n relation to recognized standards and traditions of musical practice. In practical terms, then, the aims of music education will not be accomolished if teachers merely entertain their students, or if s t u d e n t s m e r e l y d a b b l e i n e r s a t z " s o u n d - p r o d u c i n g a c t i v i t i e s . " S e l f - k n o w l e d g e a n d e n j o y m e n t a r i s e fr o m t h e e x t e n s i o n o f o n e ' s powers of consciousness: from significant and knowledgeable effort. What this means for music teaching and learning is that the values of MUSIC result from learning to make and listen for musical works well --- from the deliberate and sustained pursuit of musical competency, proficiency and expertise. To pursue musical excellence is to pursue self-growth, constructive knowledge and enjoyment.
In summary, the primary task of music e d u c a t i o n i s t o d e v e l o p th e c o m p r e h e n s i v e muslcianship of all students through progressive musical problem solving in balanced relation to appropriate musical challenges every step of the w a y . lt i s t h e b a l a n c i n g o r m a t c h i n g o f m u s i c i a n s h i p w i t h c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d m u s i c a l challenges (i.e., excellent works of music) that results in the achievement of "life-valuesl' Put another way: self-growth, self-knowledge, and m u s i c a l e n j o y m e n t a r e t h e a i m s o f m u s i c education overall and the primary goals of every music teaching-learning episode.
H o w a r d G a r d n e r (1 9 9 0 ) s u p p o r t s t h i s p o s i t i o n w h e n h e s t a t e s t h a t w h i l e s t u d e n t s
(especially older students) can benefit from purely historical, analytical, and appreciation{ype music studies: these topics are less crucial for most students than the possibility of continuing active involvement in the arts as reflective practition- ers.There will be time enough in university, and beyond, for these more 'distanced' forms of artistic appreciation to become dominant. (p. 42)
C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i (1 9 9 0 ) also supports this view when he states t h a t c o m p a r e d t o m u s i c l i s t e n i n g
alone, "even greater rewards are open to those who learn to make music" (p.
1 1 1 ) . T h i s is p l a u s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e c h a l l e n g e s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g to interpret and perform music well are more comolex than those involved in l i s t e n i n g a l o n e , b e c a u s e p e r f o r m i n g u s u a l l y involves clearer goals and feedback than listening alone, and because making music for and with others generates the musical works that listeners need to achieve self-growth and enjoyment for themselves.
And there is more. Learning to perform music artistically and creatively extends the range of students' expressive and impressive powers b y p r o v i d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s t u d e n t s to participate in interpreting and formulating musical expressions of emotions, musical representations o f p e o p l e , p l a c e s a n d t h i n g s , a n d m u s i c a l expressions of cultural-ideological meanings (cf.
Elliott, 1995, pp. 296-298). When this range of opportunities for musical expression and creativity is combined with the opportunities presented by t e x t s i n v o c a l a n d c h o r a l w o r k s , s t u d e n t performers gain numerous ways of giving artistic- cultural form to their powers of thinking, knowing, valuing, evaluating, believing, and feeling. And it is for these reasons, in turn, that music is so s i g n i f i c a n t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g , d e f i n i n g , d e l i n e a t i n g , and preserving a sense of community and self- identity within social groups.
F i n a l l y , t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g a diverse range of music comprehensively (through a n a c t i v e , c r i t i c a l , m u s i c m a k i n g a p p r o a c h ) a m o u n t s t o a n i m p o r t a n t f o r m o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n ( c f . E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 5 , p p . 2 0 8 - 2 1 3 ) . F o r learning to interpret and perform (and, therefore, i n v e s t i g a t e a n d e n t e r i n t o u n f a m i l i a r m u s i c p r a c t i c e s ) a c t i v a t e s s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e
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personal reconstruction of one's relationships, a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d p r e f e r e n c e s . S t u d e n t s a r e obliged to confront their prejudices (musical and personal) and face the possibility that what they may believe to be universal is not. In the process o f i n d u c t i n g s t u d e n t s i n t o u n f a m i l i a r m u s i c a l practices, music educators link the
l i f e - v a l u e s o f m u s i c a n d m u s i c education to the broader values of humanistic education.
To "lntegrate," or Not?
As I argue elsewhere ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 5 , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 ) , m u s i c e d u c a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f u l l development of every child because the primary values of music education
o v e r l a p t h e e s s e n t i a l li f e - g o a l s t h a t m o s t individuals and societies pursue for the good of e a c h a n d a l l : n a m e l y , s e l f - g r o w t h ( o r s e l f - differentiation, complexity, and integration), self- k n o w l e d g e , e n j o y m e n t , s e l f - e s t e e m , a n d happiness. The welfare of a society depends on the ability of its citizens to pursue and achieve these goals regularly.The quality of individual and community life depends on providing people with the knowings and the opportunities they require to make a life as well as a living.
From this perspective, the means and results of educating students to make and listen for music well are simultaneously personal, social, and cultural.They are also political.To the Greeks, the word oolitics meant whatever involved people in human concerns beyond their own individual needs. The development of musicianship allows p e o p l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e c o n s t r u c t i v e l y i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n , e x p r e s s i o n , a n d i m p r e s s i o n o f challenging and moving works of music that can imbue their everyday lives, and the lives of others, with meaning and purpose. The development of musicianship benefits self and other.
Accordingly, a school that denies children a s u s t a i n e d a n d s y s t e m a t i c m u s i c e d u c a t i o n curriculum is not simply incomplete;it imperils the quality of students' present and future lives by denying them the cognitive keys to a unique and major source of fundamental human life-values.
lf a society wishes to invest in a basic education for every child, then public schooling must center on the domains of thinking and knowing that are
Musiikkikasvatus Vsk. r Nro r 1996
a c c e s s i b l e , a c h i e v a b l e , a n d a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l . MUSIC is one of these basic coonitive domains.
What needs attention nJ* ,.,n. popular claim that music education is a valuable means of improving students' academic achievement
scores. Indeed, teachers' anecdotal r e p o r t s o f t e n im p l y s t r o n g l i n k s b e t w e e n s c h o o l re t e n t i o n r a t e s , s t u d e n t m o r a l e , a n d s c h o l a s t i c a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e o r e s e n c e o f challenging school music programs on the other.
As I view the evidence, the f i n d i n g s o f m u s i c e d u c a t i o n r e - searchers, developmental psycho- l o g i s t s , a n d c o g n i t i v e s c i e n t i s t s
support several conclusions. First, studies of the r e l a t i o n s h i o s b e t w e e n m u s i c i n s t r u c t i o n a n d a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t a r e r e l a t i v e l y f e w i n number and fraught with procedural weaknesses.T h i s i s s t i l l a f l e d g l i n g a r e a o f r e s e a r c h . N o t surprisingly, the results are contradictory. Some studies suggest that students who do well in music tend to have higher academic achievement scores that nonmusic students; others deny it. In any event, positive correlations are not explanations of causation.
S e c o n d , i t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t c o n - s c i o u s n e s s c o n s i s t s o f a n u m b e r o f d i s c r e t e i n t e l l i g e n c e s o r c o g n i t i v e m o d u l e s t h a t f o l l o w their own developmental paths (Gardner, 1983, pp. 124-27;282-85). The cognitive operations i n v o l v e d i n e a c h d o m a i n ( s u c h a s l a n g u a g e , mathematics, and music) are essentially domain s p e c i f i c . T h u s , s a y s G a r d n e r (1 9 8 3 ) , " m u s i c deserves to be considered as an autonomous intellectual realm" (p.126). lf so, then it would be surprising to find intimate cognitive relationships b e t w e e n m u s i c a l th i n k i n g a n d t h e d i s t i n c t l y n o n m u s i c a l t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s t h a t g r o u n d p r o p o s i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s s u c h a s m a t h e m a t i c s , spelling, history, and reading.
While there is no doubt that competent m u s i c m a k i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g in v o l v e s e v e r a l categories of thinking that occur in other subject d o m a i n s ( i n c l u d i n g c r i t i c a l re f l e c t i o n , f o r m a l thinking, and creative generation), the contents, contexts, standards, goals, and outcomes of these categories differ fundamentally from subject to
subject. Thus attempts tl components of musical thi domains are essentially r
However, becaur m o d u l e s a n d p r o c e s s sciousness as a whole, th among these modules ar general level of cognitic s u g g e s t s , t h e r e a r e " h capacities such as "the i a n a l o g i c t h i n k i n g , p e supervisory knowing (or g that seem to exist both wit intelligence modules (pp.
a systematic music educ develooment of these brr in turn, interact with or tre Indeed, if there ship between the develo and academic achievemer likely lies in the primary va As I noted earlier, self-E optimal experience, and tl simply improve human ex;
They make an essential c differentiation, and coml therefore, to one's overal who are often in flow have those who experit (Csikszentmihalyi, 1 993 says Csikszentmihalyi (1 report more flow tend k d eve I o p academ ic talents are in flow less often" (p.
I t f o l l o w s th a t effective way to achieve a benefits of music educt c o n c e n t r a t e o n d e musicianship, which is I a c h i e v i n g t h e v a l u e s teaching and learning. A divert music education development of musician h o p e o f a d v a n c i n g o academic skills is compl efforts to "inte-grate" mr
" a c r o s s th e c u r r i c u l u r d e v e l o o m e n t o f m u s i c i negate the possibility of e may transfer across don
