The process of recognising non-formal and informal learning

research of national RPL systems and processes has been conducted in the European HE context for instance in the countries listed in table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2. EHEA countries with recent research on RPL systems and processes

Belgium Gijbels, Donche, Van den Bossche, Ilsbroux & Sammels 2014 Denmark Enggaard & Aagaard 2014

Finland Airola & Hirvonen 2012; Halttunen & Koivisto 2014; Lepänjuuri & Burns 2014 France Halba 2014; Rémery & Merle 2014

Germany Seidel 2011; Thomas 2014 Ireland Goggin, Sheridan & Horgan 2014

Italy Palumbo, Piccardo & Startari 2014; Serbati, Frison & Maniero 2014

Netherlands Brinke, Sluijsmans & Jochems 2009; Duvekot 2014c; Leushuis 2014; van Berkel 2014

Norway Alfsen 2014

Slovenia Uršič & Gabršček 2014

Sweden Andersson & Fejes 2011; Stenlund 2013 Switzerland Bednarz & Bednarz 2014; Gerster 2014

UK Murray 2014; Pokorny 2011; Pokorny & Whittaker 2014; Walsh 2014; Whittaker 2011

In practical terms, a recognition process for non-formal and informal learning within the EHEA typically follows a four-step process of identification, documentation, assessment and certification, as described by the Council of the European Union (2012, 3). The process is based on general RPL and lifelong learning principles of providing individuals an opportunity to demonstrate relevant learning acquired outside of formal education and training and have that learning certified for their HE degrees. The four steps are illustrated in figure 3.1 below.

4. Certification,

whereby the learning is recorded and/or awarded.

3. Assessment

of skills and learning to a set standard;

2. Documentation

to make visible the individual's experiences;

1. Identification

of the student’s skills and knowledge, typically with self-assessment supported by guidance;

Figure 3.1. Four steps in the recognition process for non-formal and informal learning (Council of the European Union 2012, 3)

In the initial stage a HE student would identify his/her learning acquired in various non-formal and informal learning environments and through lifelong learning in connection with the expressed learning outcomes to estimate whether an RPL process is a viable option. This enforces the significance of self-assessment as a central part of any RPL process in HEIs (Airola 2012a, 117; Van Kleef 2014, 29). The term self-assessment in educational contexts is often connected to students assessing their own skills, i.e. making assessments of their own learning goals, activities and outcomes also in formal learning (Boud 1995, 5; Everhard 2015b, 22; Tassinari 2015, 65). In RPL self-assessment is typically viewed as an invaluable tool for the student to reflect on his/her own learning so the process prompts introspection and helps the student to visualise his/her meaningful accomplishments or milestones, skills and knowledge as well as possibilities and obstacles for development, thus promoting personal, educational and occupational planning (Ansela, Haapaniemi & Pirttimäki 2005, 33;

Boud 1995, 13; Van Kleef 2012, 181).

Consequently, self-assessment is seen as inherently connected to independent learning, also referred to as autonomous, self-directed or self-regulated learning (Morrison 2011, 4) and thus the principle closely mirrors the principles of lifelong learning which also encourage meta-cognitive competencies such as self-reflection and self-evaluation (Birenbaum 1996, 4; Boud 1995, 13–14). However, as self-assessment can be at times challenging when assessing skills and abilities in connection with set

21 learning outcomes, particularly in the HE context support for self-assessment for RPL purposes should always be provided.

Therefore the identification stage of recognising non-formal and informal learning in HE typically also includes guidance provided by designated RPL advisors and/or assessors in the student’s HEI. Initial guidance for prospective claimants for RPL is seen as crucial in informing students about the various aspects of choosing RPL and, in conjunction with the student’s own reflection, engaging the learner to the process (Challis 1993, 35). Guidance is necessary as students may not have a clearly defined understanding of their own learning or its relevance to the learning outcomes (Ministry of Education 2007, 28; Werquin 2010, 22) as defining and recognising particularly informal or experiential learning for HE purposes can be challenging at times even for RPL personnel and assessors (Fenwick 2006, 42–43; McGivney 2006, 16–17). Overall, RPL guidance in HEIs should be provided through various support and information outlets such as personal meetings, written materials such as guides or manuals, electronic/online communication, group sessions, peer support or even special RPL support units (Whittaker, Brown, Benske & Hawthorne 2011, 6). The RPL information and guidance services provided by UEF and the UEF Language Centre in connection with the RPL processes in this study will be described in detail in later sections.

In the second stage of recognition of non-formal and informal learning, the documentation or production of evidence of the individual’s learning, RPL policies and guidelines allow for several methods to be adopted, including tests and examinations, declarative methods (e.g. portfolios or narratives), methods based on observation, simulations and evidence or work practices (Cedefop 2009, 58–64; Colardyn & Bjørnåvold 2005, 120–121). The key issues in ensuring the validity and quality of the documentation are that the methods are authentic and transparent and that each RPL participant receives the same treatment during the documentation process, from the administrative elements of signing up and being informed about the documentation activities to the analysis and feedback regarding the results (Challis 1993, 68; Evans 2006a, 209; Ministry of Education 2007, 27; Travers & Harris 2014, 250; Werquin 2010, 79).

Documentation is also inherently connected to the third stage, assessment. In RPL assessment processes the methods can generally be divided into two models: the credit exchange model and the developmental model. The former refers to the RPL applicant offering evidence of knowledge or learning typically through performance testing or an examination while the latter involves both evidence of prior learning and a reflective personal account such as a portfolio and interview process (Butterworth 1992, 40; Osman 2004, 141). A more recent division of RPL assessment methods is the division into convergent or divergent, where convergent methods, similarly to the credit exchange model, refer to the assessment of a student’s knowledge in relation to set criteria or requirements, often measured with testing or examinations, while divergent methods aim to determine the extent of the applicant’s knowledge (Andersson 2006b, 37; Hult & Andersson 2008, 15).

The assessment methods for the recognition of non-formal and informal learning can be similar to the methods used in the assessment of the equivalent formal learning (Werquin 2010, 80). Therefore if a university course or study module utilises, say, a final

examination as the primary method of assessment, the same method could be used in the RPL process for non-formal and informal learning. Some RPL stakeholders in fact posit that in HE the best results and reasonable reliability of RPL assessment can be reached with singular and straightforward activities and exercises with assessment performed with the same criteria and methods as for the formal learning (Ministry of Education 2007, 25), with some RPL scholars emphasising method similarity to ensure that the assessment of learning outcomes is not treated differently or made more or less demanding in either case (Werquin 2010, 80–81). In fact Evans (2006a, 216) calls the use of more stringent criteria or methods for recognition purposes than for students in formal learning “improper, dishonest and academically irresponsible”.

Successful assessment of non-formal and informal learning in HEIs will lead to the certification of the learning outcomes as the fourth and final stage of the recognition process, with e.g. ECTS credits granted or the learning certified and validated in other ways. Werquin (2010, 33–35), however, has added social recognition as the fifth stage to the recognition process which refers to the recognition of the validation process and its outcomes by HEIs and the society as a whole as part of gaining academic qualifications. However, the four-stage process recommended by the Council of the European Union (2012, 3), as described in figure 3.1, has been primarily adopted by European and Finnish HEIs, and will be discussed further in later sections in the context of this study with the UEF university-level RPL principles and the UEF Language Centre recognition principles.

3.1.3 Challenges in recognising non-formal and informal learning