Selection

Many researchers conduct the studies on the expatriates’ personal characteristics and give advice on the selection of expatriates. The right expatriates with suitable personal traits can get better adjustment and increase the success rates of the expatriation. Avril and Magnini (2007) state that the success of the expatriation firstly depends on the suitable recruitment, finding the right one for the international task is one of the most important keys.

Dowling et al. (1994) state that many researches find out that although technical capability is one important criterion in expatriate selection, it has nothing to do with the other important capabilities as the ability to adjust in a new environment, adapt the foreign behaviors, and communicate with colleagues from a new culture. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) suggest a multidimensional method to select the suitable expatriates;

these are some of the guidelines as: self orientation, others-oriented, perception dimension, cultural toughness. Hutchings (2002) lists some factors that MNCs need to take into consideration in expatriates selection, these can be technical capability, personality traits, environment variables, family factors.

A list of literature suggests some factors related to personal traits that could affect the

adjustment of expatriates. Mamman (1995) suggests age is the factor needs to be considered. Furnham and Bochner (1982) identify expatriates with younger age and better education can adapt to the host country faster, while Selmer et al. Selmer et al.

(2009) find out that age matters in Chinese business context, they suggest that MNCs should take age into consideration in the expatriates selection when they send expatriates to China, but since elder people are highly respected in Chinese society, expatriates with elder age can get positive impact on their job performance in their work adjustment.

Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) find out that grasping Chinese language skills can help with adjustment as well. Littrell (2002) states that the knowledge of the host country language may not be essential, but it can help the adjustment of the expatriates, develop a better relationship with host country nationals, co-workers and community.

Selmer (1995) point out that previous foreign experience can help with the adaptation.

Caligiuri (2000) states the influence of personality on expatriation. Clause et al.

(2011C3 writer) demonstrate that previous international experience can have positive correlation with job adjustment of expatriates. While Mol et al. (2005a) test the hypothesis and do not support that previous international experience have connection with expatriates adaptation and suggest that maybe these two elements are mediated by many other factors.

Tye and Chen (2005) state that the personal characteristics with a high level of tolerance for ambiguity can help expatriates to adapt to the new norms and social behaviors.

Tracey and Shay(1997) bring out that emotional intelligence is a necessary trait for the successful cross culture adaptation, these can be low goal and task orientation, open-mindedness, tolerance for difference and ambiguity, communicativeness, empathy, flexibility, curiosity, warmth in relationships, motivation, self reliance. Caligiuri (2000)

finds out that expatriates who are extroversion, agreeableness, emotional stability can lead to better adjustment aboard. Black (1988) suggests that stress tolerance is one important factor on the adaptation. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) state that the communication ability is of great importance to the adjustment of expatriates because with better communication skills, expatriates can get more involved with the locals, colleagues and peer expatriates, understand more on the local culture and behaviors, get more information and social support to reduce anxiety and uncertainties.

Many scholars have great interest in the Big Five dimensions, which is one of the most popular theories on personality traits in expatriation (Barrick & Mount, 1991).

McCrae & Costa (1987) brings out the five indexes in the personality measurement, they are: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. Although this model gets its criticism and many scholars find conflicting results, it is still be viewed as one of the most useful tools for the cross culture adjustment research and it is generally agreed that openness positive connection with successful adaptation for expatriation (Smith & Bond, 1999). Caligiuri (2000) finds out two reasons on the successful application of the evolutionary psychological theory on the expatriates adjustment. One is because the variations in the dimensions can make the individuals fill in the matched different positions. Another is because this theory is universal and can be used for individuals from different countries and positions. Shaffer et al. (2006) base their theory on the big five and take it further, their theory is on the adjustment effectiveness on individual differences, it includes big five, cultural flexibility, task orientation, people orientation and ethnocentrism as predictors of the adjustment of expatriates.

Earley & Ang (2003) bring out that cultural intelligence as one index to measure the cultural adjustment capacity, it includes meta-cognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioral. Another personality dimension is about the connection between self esteem,

self efficacy with job performance. Renn & Prien (1995) find out individuals with high self esteem gets better job satisfaction, there is a positive correlation between self esteem and job performance, and job performance is one aspect in the adjustment of expatriates.

Mol et al. (2005a) state that cultural sensitivity is another personal characteristic that is studied in expatriates’ adjustment. Chen& Starosta (2000) state cultural sensitivity is an individuals' capability to have positivity to understand a new culture and produce proper behavior in the cross culture communication. Mol et al. (2005a) find out the positive relationship between cultural sensitivity and job performance. Javidan et al. (2010) proposed the Global Mind-Set Inventory, there are 3 attributes that could affect the expatriates’ adjustment: knowledge of international business and capability of learning, openness to new culture and flexibility in new environment, social capability to build network.

Pil & Leana (2009) indicate that human capital or expatriates' knowledge and skills developed from education and experience have impact on expatriates job performance and adjustment.

Sparrow (1999) states that companies use psychological methods to assess the characteristics related to the capability of adaptation besides the technical and managerial skills to select the expatriates.

Harvey (1985) brings out the topic of taking family issues taken into consideration in expatriates’ selection. Schell and Solomon (1997) find out that on the case of selection of expatriates, many companies are hesitating in whether to involve family or not.