Problems with foreign language learning

There are various reasons for foreign language learning problems. They might be caused by lack of motivation, high levels of anxiety, learning style differences and inefficient learning strategies (Sparks & Ganschow 1993:289). However, these factors do not explain all the difficulties.

Although reading and writing problems decrease significantly in secondary school, Statistics Finland of 2009-2010 also show that foreign language learning problems increase in secondary school, being the second largest reason for receiving part-time special education. This phenomenon is explained by Sparks et al (Ganshow &

Pohlman 1989 cited in Leons et al 2009: 43) who observe that foreign language learning problems lie along a continuum, meaning that some students are likely experience immediate difficulty at the beginning of studies, whereas others will not experience difficulty until the intermediate level (Sparks et al 1989 cited in Leons et al 2009: 43). Presumably, when the amount of things to be learned increases in secondary school as well as the difficulty of the contents, it accumulates more difficulties in learning if a learner has problems with memory and reading and language skills are limited (Haapasalo 2007: 49). Furthermore, problems are even more likely to accumulate if a learner has difficulties in learning even the basic foreign language skills in primary school.

However, Sparks et al (2006) point out that there is no evidence of existence of a specific learning disability for foreign language learning and IQ tests do not predict success in foreign language learning. So, are all those foreign language learning problems if not caused by lack of motivation, high levels of anxiety or inefficient learning strategies, due to dyslexia or dysphasia? Skills in L1 have influence on foreign language learning (Pitkänen et al 2001:82). If a child with language problems has problems in many parts of L1, it is expected that s/he will have problems with foreign language learning and will need support (Pitkänen et al 2001:82). Especially, problems with phonological processing in oral and written communications in L1 and also problems with reading and writing in L1 are likely to cause problems with foreign language (Sparks & Ganschow 1993:295).

According to Service and Lehto (2005: 260) foreign language learning problems are often linked to dyslexia but pupils not suffering from dyslexia might be affected as well. Reason for this is that English, which is usually the first foreign language, has an opaque orthography with difficult phonemes and rows of consonants for Finns, making the development of the phonological knowledge more difficult. (Service &

Lehto 2005:260) In addition to the problems of learning the phonological system of a new language, a person might also have problems with learning grammar, both of them causing problems in word recognition and reading comprehension (Pitkänen et al 2001: 88).

Moreover, if a pupil has problems with foreign language learning, it is important to find out whether the pupil has problems with his/ her L1 as well. It is difficult to estimate and have interventions on a pupil’s foreign language problems without paying attention to the same skills in L1 as well. (Pitkänen et al 2001: 88) According to Dufva (2004: 58-59) word level reading and reading and listening comprehension skills in the native language together with phonological awareness and phonological memory are significant predictors of learning literacy and communication of English language. Despite that similar cognitive skills (phonological processing, phonological working memory and rapid naming) have an impact on learning to read and write as well as problems with them in different languages, these skills can be differently significant in different languages depending on a language and its orthography. Thus, reasons behind dyslexia can be expressed differently in different

languages: one extreme can be that dyslexia is present in one language but not in another. (Arvonen et al 2009: 84) Hence, foreign language teachers can be a crucial link recognising unnoticed reading and writing problems (Luki-työryhmä 1999: 22).

However, the reading and writing committee (Luki-työryhmä 1999:22, 28) admits that foreign language teachers’ training does not include much compulsory studies of specific learning disabilities. Despite the important role of foreign language teachers, as far as I am informed, the situation has not changed much since 1999.

Moreover, language learning problems are linked to memory problems, especially the phonological loop of working memory and long term memory as well. Weak phonological knowledge is assumed to mean that whether the phonological long-term memory or phonological working memory functioning is weak. (Service &

Lehto 2005: 251, 261) Weak phonological awareness puts a great amount of strain on the phonological loop of working memory, especially causing problems with input and output of spoken language (Service & Lehto 2005: 260). The ability to represent unfamiliar phonological material in working memory, which was demanded by asking pupils to repeat or copy English-sounding pseudowords, and the quality of it, seems to predict foreign language learning, especially vocabulary learning, in primary school (Service 1989, Service & Kohonen 1995). In addition, in order to read and spell a foreign language a learner needs to aware of the differences in sound-letter correspondence in a foreign language and the native language (Dufva 2004: 59). However, learning can be helped by developing phonological knowledge combined with learning the regularities of orthography (Service & Lehto 2005:261-262). Increasing vocabulary in the long-term memory helps phonological working memory explaining why familiar words are easier to remember compared to pseudowords or new words in a foreign language (Service & Lehto 2005: 263).

However, only stating that a pupil has problems with foreign language learning is too wide a concept. It should be stated more specifically which specific skills of language a pupil has problems with. (Dufva et al 2007:156) Dufva et al (2007) explain that a part of the language skills are independent of a language and the other skills are language specific. Language independent skills comprise listening comprehension, reading comprehension, speaking, writing, learning strategies and phonological working memory. Language specific skills include pronunciation,

vocabulary and grammar although language specific skills can have effect on the language independent skills. Decoding and spelling lie between the language independent and language specific skills. This categorization can be helpful when the aim is to support pupils with language learning problems. (Dufva et al 2007: 159) All in all, successful learning of “a foreign language requires both good skills in the language-independent, universal skills […] and good language-specific skills, such as syntax, grammar, vocabulary, and partly word recognition” (Dufva 2004: 59).