The National Core Curriculum for Upper Secondary Schools 2003 in Finland, from now on NCCUSS 2003, provides general upper secondary education with basic objectives and regulations. As with NCCBE 2004, a wide range of topics, such as the role of general upper secondary education, values and conceptions of learning, are covered but the focus of the discussion here is merely on cultural aspects. On a general level it is worth mentioning that the task of general upper secondary education is to encourage learners to "treasure, assess and renew their cultural heritage" and to provide them with tools to "tolerant and international
co-operation" (NCCUSS 2003: 12). Thus, emphasis on cultural aspects is embedded in the concept of general upper secondary education.
Since learning contents in general upper secondary education are more demanding than in basic education, quite naturally also the perspective towards culture is wider. According to NCCUSS (2003: 102), the main objectives of foreign language learning in terms of cultural content are the following. First, learners' intercultural communication skills and the ability to communicate appropriately according to the target language and culture are developed further. Second, learners should understand and appreciate the target culture and become aware of its characteristic features. Third, European identity as well as European multilingualism and multiculturalism are taken into account.
NCCUSS (2003: 102-103) presents several guidelines for courses. First, the subject areas are considered from the viewpoint of the culture of origin, of the target culture or possibly from a broader perspective. This should allow learners to make comparisons. Second, differences between communication in learners' mother tongue and in the target language are taken into account, and they are explained with cultural aspects. Authentic materials, such as literature, are used to demonstrate the differences. Third, learners should also develop their "cultural sensitivity" and acknowledge how values and actions are tied to cultures.
On the language proficiency scale learners are expected to achieve level B2.1 in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, speaking and writing (NCCUSS 2003: 102). In terms of the sociolinguistic appropriateness table provided by CEFR (2001: 122) it means mastering both formal and informal registers in different situations, understanding fast and colloquial speech and being able to interact with native speakers without causing funny or irritating misunderstandings. The knowledge of those abilities is linked not only to linguistic skills but also to cultural aspects. For example, situations where informal speech is accepted vary in different cultures, and the same applies to matters that can amuse or offend native speakers.
Table 4. Sociolinguistic appropriateness (CEFR 2001: 122)
B2 Can express him or herself confidently, clearly and politely in a formal or informal register, appropriate to the situation and person(s) concerned.
Can with some effort keep up with and contribute to group discussions even when
speech is fast and colloquial.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating them or requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.
Can express him or herself appropriately in situations and avoid crass errors of formulation.
To sum up, CEFR 2001 introduces four key competences concerning cultural aspects:
sociocultural knowledge (knowledge of the society and culture of the target language), intercultural awareness (knowledge of the differences and similarities between the culture of origin and the target culture), intercultural skills (mediating between the two cultures) and sociolinguistic competence (using the language appropriately on a social level). These skills act as a base for cultural knowledge and should therefore be borne in mind in local curricula planning and in textbook writing.
According to the Finnish guidelines, the key developments in terms of cultural knowledge after each grade are the following. Grades 3 - 6 function as an introduction to cultures. After grade 6 learners should know something about the central aspects of the target culture and about the main similarities and differences between it and the culture of origin. Learners should be able to communicate in basic everyday situations and master common politeness forms. During grades 7 - 9 the knowledge of central differences between customs, values and beliefs is deepened. As new aspects comparisons between the culture of origin and the target culture, relationship between values and culture, different English variants and history are mentioned. In general upper secondary education intercultural communication skills are highlighted more and the European identity is emphasised. Differences between the target language and learners' mother tongue are taken into consideration and especially how they can be explained by cultural aspects, for example by using authentic materials. Learners are expected to acquire "cultural sensitivity" and understand how cultural values are behind actions and beliefs. In communication different registers and avoiding misunderstandings are brought up.
To conclude the theoretical background, a few words about the language teaching guidelines and textbooks and their influence are said. The national curricula are the most important framework for teaching. Towns, schools, teachers and textbook makers are expected to follow
them. (Luukka et al. 2008: 53.) There are also town and school specific curricula but they are not covered in the present study. While the national curricula are officially the most important guidelines, textbooks have a great influence on teaching. As was seen in section 3.1, 70 % of foreign language teachers think that textbooks have a great influence on their aims and 68 % often follow the aims suggested by textbooks (Luukka et al. 2008: 67-71). The influence is so great that textbooks are sometimes referred to as "hidden curricula" (Luukka et al. 2008: 64).
However, it must be borne in mind that textbooks alone cannot be used to deduce what is happening in classrooms as teachers can use the material differently (Luukka et al. 2008: 65).
But textbooks do create a general framework for teaching and they have an effect on what is central in language teaching: they emphasise certain aspects while ignoring others (Luukka et al. 2008: 64). So, while conclusions of the actual learning outcomes cannot be made by textbooks or curricula only, one can find out what is expected to be learned.
5 DATA AND METHODOLOGY OF THE PRESENT STUDY
This section presents the study in more detail. First, the research questions are outlined.
Second, closer attention is paid to the data of the study. Third, the methods of data analysis are introduced.