The sample size is only generalisable to the KE region of Namibia, and not Namibia at large.
Internet accessibility, negative views about online questionnaires, ethical considerations to conduct research in all regions, and timeframe of the study contributed to this limitation. Future research studies should focus on collecting data from larger samples across the country so that the results are generalised to agriculture teachers in Namibia. Alternatively, printed questionnaire copies should be used to collect data from respondents that do not have access to the internet. Otherwise, secondary data can be used for sampling provided they are available.
Another limitation for this study is the lack of studies in Namibia to support the results in the context of this research study. Research articles, books and other scientific materials conducted in Namibia in relation to agriculture education were lacking. As a result, the study explored on the topic and did not investigate, using scientific international studies to support the study’s results. Namibian researchers in science education should examine and investigate a combined influence of science subjects at the school level such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, in extension to agriculture, on their contribution to the sustainable development of Namibia at large. The measurements for these investigations should include students’
performance in the subjects, and the types of pedagogical approaches used to determine their contribution to the sustainable development of Namibia, through quality education.
Differences within the qualifications and the teachers’ years of experience were not analysed, due to the methodological approach, the research objectives, and the nature of the data.
Expertise in the methodological build-up of the research, hypothesising, and the number of variables making up construct factors could possibly explain the limit. As a result, other quantitative studies with alternative methodological approaches were used to justify the results for these comparisons. Future studies should employ advanced quantitative methodologies with larger samples for analysing associations using factor analysis methods such as exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis in factors formulation and analysing the associations with structural equation modelling techniques. A quasi-experimental design would further extend the analysis of these differences.
45 8. REFERENCES
Adeyemi, T. O. (2009). Inferential Statistics for Social and Behavioural Research. Research Journal of Mathematics and Statistics 1(2), 47-54.
Aholi, S. S., Konyango, J. J., & Kibett, J. K. (2018). Influence of Instructional Resources in Learning Agriculture in Secondary School on Employment Creation in Vihiga County, Kenya. International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, 10(1), 1-9.
Akcay, B., & Akcay, H. (2015). Effectiveness of science-technology-society (STS) instruction on student understanding of the nature of science and attitudes toward science.
International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 3(1), 37 45.
Alabi, O. O. (2016). Adoption of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) by Agricultural Science and Extension Teachers in Abuja, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Education, 57(1), 137-149.
Alias, A., & Osman, K. (2015). Assessing Oral Communication Skills In Science: A Rubric Development. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 30, 107-122.
Altieri, M. A. (2018). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture. Florida: CRC Press.
Amadhila, E., & Ikhide, S. (2016). Constraints to financing agriculture in Namibia. African Review of Economics and Finance, 8(2), 82-112.
Ameru, J. N., Odero, D., & Kwake, A. (2018). Towards Improving Agricultural Marketing Information Systems for Smallholder Farmers: A Tharaka Nithi Case. Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 11(2), 99-128.
Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism.
Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9-16.
Anderman, T. L., Remans, R., Wood, S. A., DeRosa, K., & DeFries, R. S. (2014). Synergies and tradeoffs between cash crop production and food security: a case study in rural Ghana. Food security, 6(4), 541-554.
46
Andrews, D. (2015). The circular economy, design thinking and education for sustainability.
Local Economy, 30(3), 305-315.
Aneke, C. U. (2015). Assessment of Instructional Methods Adopted by Teachers of Agricultural Science in Secondary Schools for Enhanced Skill Acquisition for Self -Reliance in Enugu State, Nigeria. British Journal of Education, 3(11), 97-206.
Asouti, E. (2013). Evolution, history and the origin of agriculture: rethinking the Neolithic (plant) economies of South-west Asia. Levant, 45(2), 210-218.
Baas, D., Castelijns, J., Vermeulen, M., Martens, R., & Segers, M. (2015). The relation between Assessment for Learning and elementary students' cognitive and metacognitive strategy use. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(1), 33-46.
Babaci-Wilhite, Z., & Geo-JaJa, M. A. (2018). A critique and rethink of modern education in Africa’s development in the 21st century. Papers in education and development, (30).
Barkemeyer, R., Holt, D., Preuss, L. and Tsang (2014). What happened to the development in
‘sustainable development’? Business Guidelines Two Decades After Brundtland.
Sustainable Development, 22(1), 15-32.
Behrendt, M., & Franklin, T. (2014). A review of research on school field trips and their value in education. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 9(3), 235 245.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2016). Research in education. India: Pearson Education India.
Bhaskar, R. (1998). The possibility of naturalism (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75-87.
Blackburn, J. J., Bunch, J. C., & Haynes, J. C. (2017). Assessing the relationship of teacher self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and perception of work-life balance of Louisiana agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 58(1), 14-35.
Blackburn, J. J., Robinson, J. S., & Field, H. (2015). Preservice Agriculture Teachers' Perceived Level of Readiness in an Agricultural Mechanics Course. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(1), 172-188.
47
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. London: Longman Publishing Group.
Boettcher, J. V., & Conrad, R. M. (2016). The online teaching survival guide: Simple and practical pedagogical tips. New Jersey: Wiley Publishers.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford university press.
Chatterjee, S., & Hadi, A. S. (2015). Regression analysis by example. New Jersey: Wiley.
Chung, Y., Yoo, J., Kim, S. W., Lee, H., & Zeidler, D. L. (2016). Enhancing students’communication skills in the science classroom through socioscientific issues. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(1), 1-27.
Ciutacu, C., Chivu, L., & Andrei, J. V. (2015). Similarities and dissimilarities between the EU agricultural and rural development model and Romanian agriculture. Challenges and perspectives. Land Use Policy, 44, 169-176.
Coley, M. D., Warner, W. J., Stair, K. S., Flowers, J. L., & Croom, D. B. (2015). Technology Usage of Tennessee Agriculture Teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(3), 35-51.
Correa, T., & Pavez, I. (2016). Digital inclusion in rural areas: A qualitative exploration of challenges faced by people from isolated communities. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 21(3), 247-263.
Davis, R. J., & Jayaratne, K. S. U. (2015). In-Service Training Needs of Agriculture Teachers for Preparing Them to Be Effective in the 21st Century. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(4), 47-58.
Dewey, J. (1959). The child and the curriculum (No. 5). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Duffy, T. M., & Jonassen, D. H. (2013). Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. New York: Routledge.
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4.
Farquhar, S., & White, E. J. (2014). Philosophy and pedagogy of early childhood. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 46(8), 821-832.
48
Field, A. (2014). Discovering statistics using ibm spss statistics+ spss version 22.0. London:
Sage Publications.
Francisca, A. D., & Samsudin, S. (2018). Are Biology Pre-service Teachers ready to Implement 21st Century Skill in Teaching and Learning in Nigeria? International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 7(3), 414–423.
Fu, S., Liu, H., Tan, K., Zhan, Y., Ding, Y., & Qi, W. (2018). How Social Capital Affects the Quality Performance of Agricultural Products: Evidence from a Binary Perspective of China. Sustainability, 10(9), 3009.
Galt, R. E., Clark, S. F., & Parr, D. (2016). Engaging values in sustainable agriculture and food systems education: Toward an explicitly values-based pedagogical approach. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 2(3), 43-54.
Ghavifekr, S. & Rosdy, W.A.W. (2015). Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in Education and Science (IJRES), 1(2), 175-191.
Gold, M. V. (2016). Sustainable Agriculture: The Basics. Florida: CRC Press.
Häkkinen, P., Järvelä, S., Mäkitalo-Siegl, K., Ahonen, A., Näykki, P., & Valtonen, T. (2017).
Preparing teacher-students for twenty-first-century learning practices (PREP 21): a framework for enhancing collaborative problem-solving and strategic learning skills.
Teachers and Teaching, 23(1), 25-41.
Harlen, W. (2018). The teaching of science in primary schools. New York: Routledge.
Hlengwa, C. L., Chimbo, B., & Buckley, S. (2018). Impact of teacher demographic factors on perceptions of ICT-enhanced teaching and learning in inclusive schools: Johannesburg Central District, South Africa. Development Informatics Association (IDIA 2018), 140.
Holden, E., Linnerud, K., Banister, D., Schwanitz, V. J., Wierling, A. (2017). The Imperatives of Sustainable Development. London: Routledge.
Irungu, K. R. G., Mbugua, D., & Muia, J. (2015). Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) attract youth into profitable agriculture in Kenya. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal, 81(1), 24-33.
Jackson, S. L. (2015). Research methods and statistics: A critical thinking approach. Cengage Learning.
49
Kang, J., & Keinonen, T. (2016). Examining Factors Affecting Implementation of Inquiry based Learning in Finland and South Korea. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,74, 31-48.
Kates, R. W., Parris, T. M., & Leiserowitz, A. A. (2005). What is Sustainable Development?
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47(3), 8-21.
Kehinde–MSc, T., & Agwu, E. M. (2014). Application of ICT to Agriculture as a Panacea to Unemployment in Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Review and Research, 3(4), 26-48.
Kiraly, D. (2014). A social constructivist approach to translator education: Empowerment from theory to practice. New York: Routledge.
LaCharite, K. (2016). Re-visioning agriculture in higher education: the role of campus agriculture initiatives in sustainability education. Agriculture and human values, 33(3), 521-535.
Larson, G., Piperno, D. R., Allaby, R. G., Purugganan, M. D., Andersson, L., Arroyo-Kalin, M., … Fuller, D. Q. (2014). Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(17), 6139–6146.
Larson-Hall, J. (2015). A guide to doing statistics in second language research using SPSS and R. New York: Routledge.
Liontas, I. J. (Ed.). (2018). The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. New Jersey: Wiley Publishers.
Longmore, A. L., Grant, G., & Golnaraghi, G. (2018). Closing the 21st-Century Knowledge Gap: Reconceptualizing Teaching and Learning to Transform Business Education.
Journal of Transformative Education, 16(3), 197-219.
MacBlain, S. (2018). Learning Theories for Early Years Practice. London: SAGE Publications.
Maharaj-Sharma, R., & Sharma, A. (2017). Using ICT in Secondary School Science teaching what students and teachers in Trinidad and Tobago say? European Journal of Education Studies, 3(2), 197-211.
50
Martin, S. J., & Clapp, J. (2015). Finance for agriculture or agriculture for finance? Journal of Agrarian Change, 15(4), 549-559.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 37096.
McKim, A. J., & Velez, J. J. (2015). Exploring the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Career Commitment among Early Career Agriculture Teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(1), 127-140.
McLaren, P. (2015). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. New York: Routledge.
Mehlhorn, J. E., Bonney, L., Fraser, N., & Miles, M. P. (2015). Benchmarking entrepreneurship education in US, Australian, and New Zealand university agriculture programs. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 20(03), 1550017.
Ministry of Agriculture, Water & Forestry. (2015). Namibia Census of Agriculture 2013/2014 Communal Sector Report. Windhoek: Namibia Statistics Agency.
Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. (2014). Senior Primary Phase: Elementary Agriculture Syllabus 5-7. Okahandja: Namibia Institute for Educational Development (NIED).
Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. (2015). Junior Secondary Phase: Agricultural Science Syllabus 8 & 9. Okahandja: Namibia Institute for Educational Development (NIED).
Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. (n.d.). The Structure of The Basic Education (Pre -Primary to Grade 12. Okahandja: National Institute for Educational Development (NIED).
Ministry of Education. (2009). Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate (NSSC) Agriculture Syllabus Ordinary Level Grades 11 – 12. Okahandja: Namibia Institute for Educational Development (NIED).
Ministry of Education. (2010). Junior Secondary Phase: Agriculture Syllabus Grades 8 – 10.
Okahandja: Namibia Institute for Educational Development (NIED).
Mlangeni, A. T. N., Chibaya, S. B., Kaperemera, N., Kamundi, E. A., Malinda, E., & Kapito, N. (2015). Investigating Agriculture Teacher Shortage in Secondary Schools in Malawi. Journal of Studies in Education, 5(2), 224-237.
51
Moodie, G., Wheelahan, L., Fredman, N., & Bexley, E. (2015). Towards a New Approach to Mid-Level Qualifications. (Research Report No. ED561410). Retrieved from National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER).
Muijs, D. (2011). Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications.
Musau, L. M., & Abere, M. J. (2015). Teacher Qualification and Students' Academic Performance in Science Mathematics and Technology Subjects in Kenya. International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, 7(3), 83-89.
Namibia Statistics Agency. (2013). Namibia Population and Housing Census 2011. Windhoek:
Namibia Statistics Agency.
Nardi, P. M. (2018). Doing survey research: A guide to quantitative methods. New York:
Routledge.
National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2005). National Curriculum Framework. New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.
National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2014). Basics in Education: Textbook for B. Ed. Course. New Delhi: Karan Press.
National Planning Commission. (2004). Vision 2030. Windhoek: National Planning Commission.
National Planning Commission. (2012). Fourth National Development Plan, National Planning Commission. Windhoek: National Planning Commission.
National Planning Commission. (2015). Annual Report 2014/2015. Windhoek: National Planning Commission.
Ndem, J. U., & Akubue, B. N. (2016). Status of Teaching Pre-Vocational Subjects in the Junior Secondary School Level (Agricultural Science and Home Economics). Journal of Education and Practice, 7(4), 103-109.
Newhouse, C. P. (2017). STEM the boredom: Engage students in the Australian curriculum using ICT with problem-based learning and assessment. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 26(1), 44-57.
52
Niebel, D., Kopp, G., & Beerfeltz, J. H. (2013). Information and communications technology (ICT). Key technologies for sustainable developlent, BMZ Strategy Paper, 2.
Nkereowajiro, J. N. (2014). The Impact of Student’s Field Trips on Academic Performances in Agricultural Science in Selected Secondary Schools in Rivers State. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(17), 118-128.
Okiror, J. J., Hayward, G., & Winterbottom, M. (2017). Towards in-service training needs of secondary school agriculture teachers in a paradigm shift to outcome-based education in Uganda. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 23(5), 415-426.
Osakwe, J., Dlodlo, N., & Jere, N. (2017). Where learners' and teachers' perceptions on mobile learning meet: A case of Namibian secondary schools in the Khomas region.
Technology in Society, 49, 16-30.
Ozuah, P. O. (2016). First, there was pedagogy and then came andragogy. Einstein journal of Biology and Medicine, 21(2), 83-87.
Prasad, P. (2015). Crafting Qualitative Research: Working in the Postpositivist Traditions.
New York: Routledge.
Prokopy, L. S., Carlton, J. S., Arbuckle, J. G., Haigh, T., Lemos, M. C., Mase, A. S., ... & Hart, C. (2015). Extension′ s role in disseminating information about climate change to agricultural stakeholders in the United States. Climatic Change, 130(2), 261-272.
Quintana, M. G.B., & Fernández, S. M. (2015). A pedagogical model to develop teaching skills. The collaborative learning experience in the Immersive Virtual World TYMMI.
Computers in Human Behaviour, 51, 594 -603.
Reganold, J. P., & Wachter, J. M. (2016). Organic agriculture in the twenty-first century.
Nature plants, 2(2), 15221.
Rehman, A., Jingdong, L., Khatoon, R., Hussain, I., & Iqbal, M. S. (2016). Modern agricultural technology adoption its importance, role and usage for the improvement of agriculture.
Life Science Journal, 14(2), 70-74.
Rigby, M., & Sanchis, E. (2006). The concept of skill and its social construction. European journal of vocational training, 37, 22-131.
53
Robinson-Pant, A. (2016). Learning knowledge and skills for agriculture to improve rural livelihoods. France: UNESCO Publishing.
Sadler, T. D., Romine, W. L., & Topçu, M. S. (2016). Learning science content through socio scientific issues-based instruction: a multi-level assessment study. International Journal of Science Education, 38(10), 1622-1635.
Salemink, K., Strijker, D., & Bosworth, G. (2017). Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 360-371.
Savery, J. R. (2015). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions.
Essential readings in problem-based learning: Exploring and extending the legacy of Howard S. Barrows, 9, 5-15.
Schröder, H., Henke, A., Stieger, L., Beckers, S., Biermann, H., Rossaint, R., & Sopka, S.
(2017). Influence of learning styles on the practical performance after the four-step basic life support training approach–An observational cohort study. PloS one, 12(5), e0178210.
Sewell, A. M., Hartnett, M. K., Gray, D. I., Blair, H. T., Kemp, P. D., Kenyon, P. R., ... &
Wood, B. A. (2017). Using educational theory and research to refine agricultural extension: Affordances and barriers for farmers’ learning and practice change. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 23(4), 313-333.
Smith, K. L., Rayfield, J., & McKim, B. R. (2015). Effective Practices in STEM Integration:
Describing Teacher Perceptions and Instructional Method Use. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(4), 183-203.
Solomonson, J. K., Korte, D. S., Thieman, E. B., Retallick, M. S., & Keating, K. H. (2018).
Factors contributing to Illinois school-based agriculture teachers’ final decision to leave the classroom. Journal of Agricultural Education, 59(2), 321.
Soy-Massoni, E., Bieling, C., Langemeyer, J., Varga, D., Sáez, M., & Pinto, J. (2016). Societal benefits from agricultural landscapes in Girona, Catalonia. Outlook on Agriculture, 45(2), 100-110.
Stearns, P. N. (2015). Gender in world history. New York: Routledge.
54
Stoddard, J. (2009). Toward a virtual field trip model for the social studies. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(4), 412-438.
Stubbs, E. A., & Myers, B. E. (2015). Multiple Case Study of STEM in School-Based Agricultural Education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(2), 188-203.
Taapopi, M., Kamwi, J. M., & Siyambango, N. (2018). Perception of farmers on conservation agriculture for climate change adaptation in Namibia. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 8(3), 33-43.
Talebian, S., Mohammadi, H. M., & Rezvanfar, A. (2014). Information and communication technology (ICT) in higher education: advantages, disadvantages, conveniences and limitations of applying e-learning to agricultural students in Iran. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 300-305.
Thapan, M. (2006). Life at School: An Ethnographic Study. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Thierfelder, C., Rusinamhodzi, L., Ngwira, A. R., Mupangwa, W., Nyagumbo, I., Kassie, G.
T., & Cairns, J. E. (2015). Conservation agriculture in Southern Africa: Advances in knowledge. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 30(4), 328-348.
Uluyol, Ç., & Şahin, S. (2016). Elementary school teachers' ICT use in the classroom and their motivators for using ICT. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(1), 65-75.
Valley, W., Wittman, H., Jordan, N., Ahmed, S., & Galt, R. (2018). An emerging signature pedagogy for sustainable food systems education. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 33(5), 467-480.
Valtonen, T., Sointu, E., Mäkitalo-Siegl, K., & Kukkonen, J. (2015). Developing a TPACK measurement instrument for 21st century-service teachers. International journal of media, technology and lifelong learning, 11(2), 88-100.
Van Manen, M. (2016a). The tone of teaching: The language of pedagogy. New York:
Routledge.
Van Manen, M. (2016b). The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness.
New York: Routledge.
55
Velten, S., Leventon, J., Jager, N., & Newig, J. (2015). What is sustainable agriculture? A systematic review. Sustainability, 7(6), 7833-7865.
Wagner, D., Day, B., James, T., Kozma, R. B., Miller, J., & Unwin, T. (2005). Monitoring and evaluation of ICT in education projects. A Handbook for Developing Countries.
Washington DC: InfoDev/World Bank.
Woltersdorf, L., Scheidegger, R., Liehr, S., & Döll, P. (2016). Municipal water reuse for urban agriculture in Namibia: Modeling nutrient and salt flows as impacted by sanitation user behavior. Journal of environmental management, 169, 272-284.
Zanders, E., & MacLeod, L. (2018). Presentation skills for scientists: a practical guide.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
a APPENDICES
Appendix 1
b
c
d Appendix 2
e Appendix 3
f Appendix 4
pedagogical skills in agriculture education
Pedagogical skills internal consistency
#
ICT constructs Practical skills constructs
Presentation constructs Field trips constructs
g
Sustainable development skills in agriculture education
Sustainable development constructs
Entrepreneurship skills Sustainable skills