Identity is an aggregate of those qualities inherent in a person that distinguishes that person from others. By identity model the researcher refers to those processes or stages it takes a person to recognise, appreciate, and accept her or his sexual orientation as LGBT person. It refers to the identity crises people of LGBT go through in trying to resolve their sexual preferences and the coming out of the closet that usually follows such resolution. The identity models include
2.3.1 Vivienne Cass’ Homosexuality Identity Model
Dr. Vivienne Cass, a clinical psychologist, from Australia published her work on Gay and Lesbian identity formation in 197996 wherein she developed 6 stages which, according to her, homosexuals pass through in trying to resolve their sexual identity crises. She based her model on the assumptions that identity is acquired through a developmental process, and that locus for stability and change in behaviour lies in the interaction between individuals and their environments.97 The individual acts in accordance with the way he or she perceives the surrounding environment, and may develop double identities as a result; personal identity and social identity.
According to Cass, the first stage of homosexuality identity model is the identity confusion stage which starts with an individual, who once considered himself or herself as heterosexual, comes into contact with information regarding homosexuals, and in a bid to analyse it, starts gauging the information with his or her own behaviours. This will lead to identity crises where some of the individual’s behaviours correspond with homosexual acts. Identity foreclosure, according to Cass, must occur, either the individual accepting the thought of homosexuality or rejecting it, before the individual can move to the next stage. Where the individual rejects the notion of homosexuality, her or his identity model ends there and such an individual does not enter the next stage.
Where an individual accepts the notion that he or she may be homosexual, the individual moves to the identity comparison stage.98 Having resolved the question of “who am i?” in stage 1, the
96 CASS V. C., Homosexual Identity Formation: A Theoretical Model, 4 Journal of Homosexuality, (1979), pp. 219 – 235,
97 CASS V. C., as in note 96 above, p. 220
98CASS V. C., as in note 96 above, p. 225
individual would be faced in stage 2 with the task of handling the social alienation that arises as a result of his or her homosexuality. How the individual deals with the alienation will determine whether he or she moves to the next stage or stops at the current stage. This is a delicate stage, as the individual may indulge in so much self-hate that he or she may end up committing suicide.99 Identity tolerance is the third stage wherein the individual seeks out other homosexuals in order to fill the void and counter the social alienation he or she feels from the largely heterosexual society.
Here the individual tolerates the homosexual identity rather than a total acceptance of same and increases her or his commitment to being lesbian or gay. Identity tolerance is followed by identity acceptance which is the fourth stage, wherein one accepts, rather than tolerates the fact of being homosexual and tries to find a positive connotation to the newly accepted homosexual identity.
In the fifth stage which is the identity pride, the individual, aware that there’s a great difference between how he or she as an individual views the newly accepted identity and how the rest of the society sees it, compartmentalises the society into homosexuals and heterosexuals. The homosexuals, he or she views as good and worthy of being associated with, while the heterosexuals he or she views as bad and different, and therefore limits association with. An activist is born at this stage as the combination of anger against the established heterosexual society and pride in one’s homosexual identity energizes the individual into action against the heterosexual society.
The identity synthesis that follows in the sixth stage comes with the realisation that the previously held belief in positive homosexuals and negative heterosexuals were erroneous. The individual begins to view his homosexual identity as an aspect of self which is combined with other aspects of self to make one’s identity, and not the identity itself. The individual realises that there may be heterosexuals who view homosexuals positively and so increases contacts with such heterosexuals.
This completes the homosexual model identity as developed by Dr. Cass.
99 CASS V. C., as in note 96 above, p. 229
2.3.2 Anthony D’Augelli’s Homosexuality Lifespan Development Model
Professor D’Augelli in his Identity development and sexual orientation: Toward a model of lesbian, gay, and bisexual development100 identified 6 stages through which gays, lesbians, and bisexuals pass in fashioning out their identity and sexual orientation. The journey into identity development starts with exiting heterosexual identity by the individual recognising that his or her sexual orientation is not heterosexuality and “coming out”101 by telling others that one is homosexual or bisexual. This coming-out is followed by the individual developing a personal Lesbian-Gay-Bisexual Identity status by learning how to be homosexual or bisexual through contacts with persons who share the same sexual orientation. From there, the individual will create a homosexual or bisexual social identity among the people surrounding him. The next stage is becoming a homosexual or bisexual offspring which is achieved by the parents and family of the individual coming round, with time, to accepting the individual’s new homosexual or bisexual identity. Initially, the acceptance may be one of containment or tolerance, but with time it may move to affirmation. From the offspring status, the individual moves into the intimacy status by seeking and maintaining a homosexual or bisexual relationship. For those who believe their sexual orientation is a private matter, this becomes their last stage of identity development. For others who do not view it this way, they move to the last and final stage which is entering a homosexual or bisexual community. This last stage involves making political and social commitments102 and challenging the already established existing heterosexual institutions.
2.3.3 McCarn-Fassinger’s Lesbian Identity Development Model
Susan McCarn and Ruth Fassinger developed a 4-phase identity model specifically for lesbians and divided the processes into 2 broad categories; individual sexual identity development which deals with internal processes, and group membership identity development dealing with
100 D’AUGELLI A. R, ‘Identity development and sexual orientation: Toward a model of lesbian, gay, and bisexual development,’ in TRICKETT E. J. et al (Eds), Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context, xxii (486) The Jossey-Bass social and behavioral science series, (1994), pp. 312-333
101 D’AUGELLI A. R, as in note 100 above, p. 325
102 D’AUGELLI A. R, as in note 100 above, p. 327
political processes.103 The first category which is individual sexual identity development begins with the awareness phase wherein the individual comes to the realisation that she seems to have feelings for females and that her sexuality may not be heterosexual after all. The awareness phase is followed by the exploration phase where the individual addresses some of the issues that cropped up in the awareness phase. The exploration process leads the individual to the deepening/
Commitment phase where the individual’s thoughts on lesbianism will crystallise. Where the individual deepens her lesbian commitment rather than opting for bisexual or heterosexual identity, she will move to the last phase which is internalisation/ synthesis phase. Here, the individual experiences full acceptance of sexual relationship or love for women as part of who she is and the resolution of the issues that cropped up at the exploration phase in favour of lesbian identity.
The second category which is group membership identity development also has the same 4 phases, just like the first category. It begins with the awareness phase; an awareness of the fact that other sexual orientations exist other than heterosexualism and that heterosexualism may not be a universal norm.104 This is followed by the exploration phase where the individual actively pursues knowledge about lesbian people and groups and seeks either to join or stay away from them. From here, the individual moves to the deepening/ commitment phase wherein she identifies more with the lesbian group while bearing in mind the oppression and consequences the larger society visits on those with homosexual identity. The group membership identity development is completed by the internalisation/ synthesis phase wherein the individual has resolved the numerous conflicts bothering her with regards to her new sexual identity in the social context and has come to integrate her sexual orientation into her over all self-identity.
2.3.4 Arlene Istar Lev’s Transgender Emergence Model
Arlene Istar Lev identified 4 stages transsexuals pass through in their quest to evolve a new identity and how their families handle such. It begins with the discovery and disclosure stage where either the family discovers ‘anomalous’ behaviours or the individual opens up or confides in a member
103 MCCARN S. R., and FASSINGER R. E., Revisioning Sexual Minority Identity Formation: A New Model of Lesbian Identity and its Implications for Counseling and Research, 508 (24) The Counseling Psychologist (1996), DOI: 10.1177/0011000096243011) p. 522,
104 MCCARN S. R., and FASSINGER R. E., as in note 103 above, p. 524
of the family on her or his feelings and the things he or she wants to do. The discovery or disclosure is usually met with feelings of shock and betrayal.105 This is followed by the turmoil stage occasioned by the emotional trauma the family, parents, spouse, or children of the individual go through as a result of the discovery or disclosure of the gender-variant feelings or attributes. As the turmoil generated by the discovery begins to settle, the family enters into the next stage which is Negotiation stage. Here, the impact it will have on the family, relationships and acceptable boundaries of conducts are assessed and drawn, and the timing, in case the individual wants to make a proper transition and sex reassignment to the opposite gender. The whole process is completed by the Finding Balance stage, wherein the family accepts the transgender for whom he or she is, and integrate her or him back into the normal family life as a member of the family.
From the above analysis of LGBT theories and identity models, there is strong evidence to suggest that LGBT conducts and traits could be a product of biology rather than being a choice process consciously made by an individual. Were that to be the case, they qualify as unwilled acts which lacks the prerequisite mental element for criminalisation.106 On the other hand, they could also be learned behaviours. In that case, they could be considered products of a choice process which involves the exercise of one’s freewill, which said freewill could be subject to criminalisation. The next chapter will consider whether the Nigerian State is legally justified in criminalising such LGBT conducts, whether willed or unwilled, on the grounds of morality.
105 LEV A. I., Transgender Emergence: Therapeutic guidelines for working with gender-variant people and their families (New York: Haworth Press, 2004)
106 Sec 24 CC