Knowledge dissemination and transfer

The concept of conference education is expressed in terms of accessing and sharing information (see Table 2). In essence, this is achieved by attending and giving presentations, but the literature also highlights a sharing of knowledge (Huang, Davison, & Gu, 2008), which extends the passive exposure to presented information, towards its internalization as knowledge that can be used and applied. This ethos is also expressed in the above views of the OECD, where there is a clearly expressed importance on taking time to purposefully select items of interest before a particular meeting, so that time is used more productively during the actual event, and there are better opportunities to discuss matters with the gathered peer community.

Conference literature provides information that helps to inform and influence scientists from outside their laboratory (Nielsen, 2013, p. 2076), and conferences are seen to offer access to front-line research, and are therefore an important aspect of scientific communication (p. 2081).

Henry (1974, p. 189) first identified information and knowledge as being ‘data that change us’, and distinguished them from data that represent facts in their raw form. He further described a process of knowledge management, that proceeds from the production, dissemination and accessibility of information, to its potential for use or application in a given circumstance. This progression was later articulated as a hierarchy that represented progressive conceptualizations of data, information, and knowledge (e.g. Zeleny, 1987; Ackoff, 1989; Shedroff, 1999). In the conference setting, this can be seen in the practices of assembling data into presentations and papers, and presenting the information to the conference audience. However, in order to transform the information into a higher form of knowledge, it is necessary

to frame, contextualize, and internalize it (Davenport & Prusak, 1998), in order to give it meaning and credence (see Figure 1).

<ŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞ͗/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƚŝŽŶƚŚĂƚ

Figure 1. The transformation of data into knowledge in the conference setting [adapted from the DIKW (data, information, knowledge, wisdom) hierarchy, attributed to Zeleny (1987)].

Source: Author

Arellano et al. (2014) conclude that the aim of most conferences is to a greater or lesser extent to provide participants with knowledge they can use in daily practice.

Andersen and Wahlgren (2015) note the lack of focus on the evaluations of conferences, especially in relation to their capacity for learning and transfer, which they see as being reflected in the relevance of conference content to the delegate, and the application or use of what has been learned in some tangible form. However, their study also found that delegates could still be satisfied with a conference without having thought they had learned something, or that they would use what they have learned in future practice (p. 42). So, although the conception of learning is prevalent in conferences, it is not necessarily a determinant of delegate satisfaction, and this would indicate that other motivations for conference attendance are present. Furthermore, this may also indicate that although there is a drive to present and access information, this may not extend to its inculcation as knowledge, which

therefore reduces the longevity and use-potential of the information conferences have to offer.

The willingness for knowledge acceptance, knowledge authority and its perceived importance shape the efficacy of knowledge transfer in scholarly communication (Wang, Ning, & Zheng, 2014). Also, in science and technology literature, knowledge distance has been seen to have a negative correlation with knowledge transfer (ibid, p. 63). Thus, if potential information users are separated from those who can help develop this information into knowledge, then although the presented information is seen as more functional that mere data (Rowley & Hartley, 2017), it is less likely to be given credence and appreciation, and has a lower potential for use.

In the context of conferences, this knowledge distance can apply to researchers who are geographically separated, or to information that has not been accessed because a session has not been attended or a proceedings or contribution has not been read.

Thus, in terms of distance, the turning of a page, the click of a mouse, or a journey of thousands of miles can have an equally significant impact on the practical utility of information.

Conferences are an established medium of continuing education, which Graham et al. (2006) define as ‘a structured process of educating designed or intended to support the continuous development of [professionals] to maintain and enhance their professional competence’ (p. 16). In a health professions context, they see continuing professional development as ‘the process by which health professionals keep updated to meet the needs of patients, the health service, and their own professional development. It includes the continuous acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enable competent practice’ (Peck et al. 2000, cited Graham et al. 2006). Although orientated towards the health professions (who feature heavily in CPD/E practices – see §1 of this thesis), these ideas of development, currency and accessing information can be seen as having similar value across academia, the sciences, and the professions. However, much of the commentary and discussion around conferences (e.g. de Vries & Pieters, 2007; Hoyt & Whyte, 2011; Arellano et al., 2014; Wang, Ning, & Zheng, 2014) speaks of knowledge dissemination, exchange and transfer, which extends beyond the mere presentation of information.

The Canadian Health Services Research Foundation (cited Graham et al. 2006) view that ‘Effective knowledge exchange involves interaction between decision makers and researchers and results in mutual learning through the process of planning, producing, disseminating, and applying existing or new research in decision-making’. This is concretized in the term ‘knowledge transfer’ which implies a ‘a systematic approach to capture, collect and share tacit knowledge in order for it to become explicit knowledge’ (Graham et al. 2006). Thus, if conference information is to be used effectively; not only must delegates have the possibility to access information, they must also have the opportunity to discuss and internalize it, in order for it to have greater potential as beneficial knowledge. This exchange and discussion takes knowledge that has been

produced in a single or restricted academic/disciplinary context (framed as Mode 1 knowledge production), and broadens it in terms of the context of application, transdisciplinarity, heterogeneity, reflexivity/social accountability, and novel quality control (framed as Mode 2 knowledge production: Hessels & van Lente, 2008).

In this thesis, data is seen as discrete, objective facts which are unorganized or unprocessed (Rowley, 2007). Information is seen as data that is organized and structured (Rowley, 2007) and presented in a way that describes an issue or context. The collation is relevant, meaningful, and holds increased value to data, but needs to be further developed to constitute knowledge (Rowley & Hartley, 2017). Knowledge is seen as information that has been framed, contextualized and synthesized (Davenport & Prusack, 1998), and has the potential to be applied to a particular setting or context (Ackoff, 1989).

It is also necessary to define the ways that conference information is managed.

Graham et al. (2006, p. 16) view ‘dissemination’ as ‘The spreading of knowledge or research, such as is done in scientific journals and at scientific conferences’. In this thesis, the following definitions are proposed for the presentation and reception of information at conferences (author formulations):

Passive information dissemination:

Information that is potentially made available to delegates (e.g. conference proceedings and programs (hard copy or on-line), abstracts and papers published before or after the conference, poster displays (non-structured), virtual sessions (non-structured)), but which will only be accessed by those who actively investigate the information channel (e.g. read proceedings or repositories), or who encounter the information by chance (e.g. whilst browsing poster displays).

Active information dissemination:

Information that is actively presented to delegates, for example by direct feed announcements or information streams, or formal presentations to a gathered audience (e.g. oral presentations and structured poster presentations). This also extends to information (full papers and presentations) that is made reasonably available to an external audience via published conference proceedings (hardcopy or on-line), special issue series, web sites, web profiles, blogs, etc.

Knowledge transfer:

Information that is purposefully discussed between delegates and/or presenters.

The discussions will culminate in an acknowledged comprehension of the presented information, together with a conception of how it relates to the receiving party’s own context. The recipient will be the main beneficiary of the exchange, however the originator of the information will also gain perspectives of how their work may be perceived or applied in different settings.

2.3 Research on networking and communication