More than half of ever produced plastics were produced during 2000-2015 (OECD, 2018)
“The long-term goal is for the EU to become a recycling society that seeks to avoid waste and uses waste as a re-source” (European Comission, 2005) Unmanaged waste is an economic, environmental and social problem. It is estimated that in 2010, 4.8-12.7 million metric tons (Mt) entered the ocean as a result of mismanaged plastic waste in 192 coastal countries and amount was estimated to increase tenfold by 2020 (Jambeck, et al., 2015). For comparison, in 2016 in EU around 60 Mt of plastics were produced. Additionally to marine pollution and economic loss (Ellen MacArthur foundation, 2016), unmanaged plastic waste results in increase of concerns of consumers about the effects of plastic, plastic packaging and plastic waste on environment (Ipsos Mori, 2018) and even intentions to ban some single-use plastic products (European Comission, 2018).
However, modern life without plastic is utopia. There are number of applications, where use of plastics material is highly justified. Explicitly different from other materials’ properties allow plastics to be used for protection and preservation of foodstuffs, for fuel economy in vehicles, for durable and impermeable infrastructures and for applications, where use of biomass-derived ma-terials would result in biodiversity loss (OECD, 2018). Packaging is the single biggest application of plastics (APM, 2017) and extensive plastic use in packaging is not accidental.
Packaging purposes are to contain, protect and preserve the product. It also increases con-venient use of a product, provides mean for identification of the content and is used as a marketing instrument (Emblem, 2012). Plastics are widely used as packaging material due to their light weigh, chemical resistance, barrier properties, sealing properties and transparency (Delgado, et al., 2007). Use of plastics packaging makes our life more convenient, but also substantially safer and resource efficient. Plastic packaging protects medical instruments against contamination, re-duces weight of transported goods and therefore helps to decrease emission and energy used for transportation and prevents food waste by allowing contamination free and controlled atmos-phere inside the package (APM, 2018).
Harvesting of plastic material potential and avoiding problems associated with unmanaged plastic waste is attainable with sound plastic waste management. Among the main principles guiding the waste management in Europe and Finland, are waste hierarchy, polluter-pays princi-ple and extended producer responsibility principrinci-ple (Laaksonen, et al., 2017).
Waste hierarchy means that waste prevention and management actions are placed in priority order, in which prevention of waste is the first option (EPC, 2008). Waste is prevented, for exam-ple when plastic packaging manufacturers work on the package design to minimize the amount of materials used. Cleaning and reparation, i.e. preparation for re-use, is the second option in waste hierarchy. Re-use of plastic crates, boxes and wooden pallets is common practice in Fin-land, resulting in only 40% of used packaging eventually becoming available for recycling and energy recovery (Rinki, 2018), which are the next options in waste hierarchy. Safe disposal of the waste, for example at properly organized landfill, is the last option.
Finnish waste management system was recently affected by limitation to deposit organic waste to landfills originated from Government Decree on waste (FINLEX, 2013). According to that limitation, the waste with content of organic carbon higher than 10% cannot be placed to the landfill. After the limitation is fully in force in 20201, no plastic waste can be placed to the landfill
1The limitation is active from 1.1.2016, but for waste separated from construction and demolition waste – only from 1.1.2020.
(Järvelä & Järvelä, 2015). This limitation resulted in development of waste treatment facilities and increase in local energy recovery capacity (Laaksonen, et al., 2017).
In the recent waste legislation transformation of waste management into sustainable material management is emphasized. Such transformation is linked to social, economic and environmental benefits such as preservation of environment and human health, efficient use of natural resources and reducing the dependence of the EU on imported resources (EPC, 2018). Use of waste as raw material is not a new idea, but practical industrial scale implementation of it is not as straight-forward, as one can imagine.
Physical transformation of waste into material can be achieved by material recovery, recycling.
In the literature reviewed, at least three types of recycling were mentioned with respect to plastics:
Biological, where microorganisms are used in the controlled treatment of biodegradable plastics to produce organic residues and water together with carbon dioxide (composting) or with methane (digestion) (CEN/TR 15353, 2007).
Chemical (feedstock), where chemical structure of plastic waste is changed through cracking, gasification or depolymerization and new raw materials are produced. Energy recovery or incineration are not considered chemical recycling (CEN/TR 15353, 2007).
Mechanical, where no significant change of chemical structure is taking place and plastic waste is processed into secondary raw materials or products by shredding and melting (CEN/TR 15353, 2007; Villanueva & Eder, 2014).
Recovered material, however, does not automatically become a new raw material, but its waste status should be terminated. Termination of waste property is done through demonstrating compliance with End-of-Waste (EoW) conditions. EoW concept can be compared to a filter that allows the waste material that is shown to be good and safe back into manufacturing system and keeps waste, which can cause harm for human and environment, away from it. By diverting part of the waste material away from disposal, the filter is one of the tools of creating the circular pattern of the stream (see figure 1 for author’s visualization of the concept).
Figure 1. Visualization of the EoW concept
The question presented to the writer of the present work was “How termination of waste status of polyolefins in Finland can be demonstrated?”
In order to answer that question, the author examined regulations, standards, scientific and professional articles and web sites of companies and authorities with the following objectives:
to determine, what “waste status” means and how waste plastic differs from non-waste
to explore, what are the conditions for termination of waste status
to present background information, necessary for evaluation of compliance of waste pol-yolefins with these conditions
to find methods to demonstrate the compliance with these conditions
To test the ideas collected during the work, two Finnish waste sub-streams, namely indus-trial/commercial flexible plastic packaging and waste plastic pipes - were chosen as test streams.
Materials status assessments and an example of documentation of such assessments are pre-sented in Chapter 6.
The scope of the work in hand is defined by the following aspects:
1. The work is limited to plastic waste. Packaging waste is the main source of plastic waste in Europe (Plastics Europe 2017) and in Finland (Sahimaa & Dahlbo, 2017). Other
con-EoW filter Waste stream
Non-waste material for manufacturing
Waste for disposal
Waste for energy recovery
siderable sources are building and construction waste, waste electronic, electrical equip-ment, end-of-life vehicles (Hopewell, et al., 2009) and agricultural waste (Villanueva, et al., 2010).
2. The research is focused on polyolefins polyethylene and polypropylene. They constitute almost half of the EU demand for plastics (APM, 2017) and are estimated to be the most abundant polymer type in plastic waste (Delgado, et al., 2007).
3. The end of waste status termination is demonstrated after mechanical recycling of plastic waste
4. As material should first become waste to become non-waste, other than waste materials (such as by-products) are explained in the text but excluded from the review.
5. While documentation related to shipment of the waste is a relevant source of information for the purposes of the work, examination of such documentation is excluded from litera-ture review due to time constrains