Gap model in quality research

Gap model has been frequently used in quality research and studies around issues related to the gap model. Studies have been done by Brogowicz, Andrew, Delene

& Lyth (1990), Brooke (1994), Chenet, Tylan & Money (2000), Douglas & Con-nor (2003), Forslund (2006), Frost (2000), Leminen (2001a), Leminen (2001b), Brysland & Curry (2001), Twaithes (1999), Kim, Kim & Kyungbae (1999) and Samson & Parker (1994)

Brogowicz, Andrew, Delene & Lyth (1990: 38) studies the managerial implica-tions on a synthesised service gap model. The core of the model is in the gap that occurs whenever service quality expectations exceed that customer’s perceptions of the service quality she or he has been offered. Recognition of the differences

and relationships between different dimensions (functional and technical) are the keys for planning, controlling and implementation of the service quality offered in a way that service quality gaps can be prevented and minimised.

Brooke’s (1994: 23, 24) study focuses on information technology and the quality gap. The study emphasises the role of an individual in the communication process and employee relationships. There are not only external but also internal custom-ers, and therefore quality becomes also a people issue. And it is only through the commitment of the people within organization that makes TQM achievable. The inability of the theory to handle a humanistic “soft” aspect resulted in a critical gap between the espied philosophy of the case organization and its implementa-tion techniques.

Chenet, Tylan & Money (2000: 491) studies possibilities to develop a new model of service performance gap and criticises Parasuraman’s gap model. Research focuses on co-operation between organization and its employees as there is poten-tially the main antecedent construct of a service performance gap. The study indi-cates that a service performance gap is a function of co-operation, perceived con-trol, trust, commitment and employee fit.

Douglas & Connor (2003: 165) also uses the SERVQUAL model in the study of service quality and expectation gap at hospitality business. He investigates how closely consumer expectation of service and staff and manager perceptions of consumer expectations matched. The study makes the conclusion that there is a gap between manager perceptions of consumers and actual consumer expecta-tions.

Gap research by Leminen, Kim, Kim & Kyungbae and Forslund provides per-spectives on buyer-seller and purchasing process. In the study of Leminen (2001 a: 473) on development of gaps in buyer-seller relationship, the focus is on inter- organizational study and inter-organizational gaps. Leminen proposes develop-ment of gaps from conceptualisation in business-to-business market settings. In Leminen’s study the influence of the gap for the buyer-seller relationships can be seen with upward and downward development between the composite levels of relationships. In the study Leminen says that gaps are dynamic phenomena which are connected to the business logics of the company. Despite the existence of the gaps relationships can, according to Leminen, be tightened and the existence of gaps can be accepted by the seller and buyer and should be open for discussions and finding solutions.

Leminen (2001b: 180-185) suggests that by opening and revealing the gaps, the understanding of the seller-buyer relationship can be increased. Increasing

num-bers of gaps or a large number of inter-organizational gaps can be seen as indica-tors of difficulties between companies.

Forslund (2006: 580, 582-583) focuses on the interaction between the purchasing process of the customer and the order delivery process of the supplier. Forslund examines the differences existing between the customer’s expected logistics per-formance and logistic perper-formance as perceived by the customer. The study also focuses on the investigation of whether there can be found differences between the logistic performance expected of customers and the supplier’s intended logis-tic performance. Also differences between logislogis-tic performance as perceived by the customer and logistics performance as perceived by the supplier were investi-gated.

Forslund’s (2006: 593) findings are that performance gaps exist among custom-ers, among suppliers and between the organizations in almost every company studied. The existence of logistics performance gaps requires that logistics qual-ity-related issues should be communicated between the customer and the supplier in a greater depth.

A gap model has also been implemented in different fields of industry. Frost &

Kumar (2000: 358, 361, 374) study how organization ensures that its internal cus-tomers will receive service quality through internal adaptation of Parasuraman’s gap model in the airline industry. The study also investigates what happens on the overall fit of the schematic internal service quality model conceptualised in the theoretical framework, verification and validity of the INTSERVQUAL instru-ment and what are the linkages of the hypotheses formulated based on the model.

Results on the study indicated that responsiveness was found to influence internal quality the most. Reliability was the foremost criterion customers consider in evaluating a company’s quality of service.

Kim, Kim & Kyungbae (1999: 232, 240) study aims to examine the perception gap between the buyer and her/his suppliers and among the suppliers by looking at the relationship of a company in the semiconductor industry. Another target in the study was to identify factors for which there exists a significant perception gap between the buyer and her/his suppliers and among the suppliers themselves.

Findings from the study indicated that there is significant perception gap and vul-nerability due to less production competence. This causes a supplier to perceive relational characteristics as more critical than others in better bargaining posi-tions, due to either larger firm size or higher production competence.

Samson & Parker (1994: 60, 63) focuses on a service quality study in consulting engineering industry and a subset of their client base using the SERVQUAL

model. Objectives of the study were to examine the perceptions and expectations of the service quality in the consulting engineering and determine the relative importance of the features which constitute service quality to ensure the extent to which consulting firms meet and understand these expectations. Also studies ex-ploring the ways in which companies are able to identify and exploit opportunities to improve their service were done.

Findings from the Sampson and Parker’s (1994: 73) study are that communication problems were clearly found between the consulting engineers and their clients.

Gaps were found between what the client expects and what consulting engineers believe the client expects and what they perceive is delivered. This gap, accord-ing to Sampson, could have been interpreted in different ways. First, it may be a matter of unrealistic expectations of the client for the service available. Secondly, it is a matter of the consulting engineering firms not to listen to their client’s de-sires. The service provider’s misinterpretation of the client expectations was a source of the problem.

A gap was also found between the principals and the engineers. Negative gaps for these items reflect the lack of management’s commitment to service quality and lack of perception of task feasibility. The disparity of the study seemed to be causing problems and inconsistencies between these management levels on a range of issues. In order to bridge the gaps between the service providers and cli-ents, more detailed discussions on clients’ needs and on how the engineering companies go about providing the services need to take place during the early contract formulation. (Sampson 1994: 73-74)

Brysland & Curry (2001: 392, 398-400) uses SERVQUAL as a tool to find ser-vice improvements in public serser-vices. Brysland & Curry emphasises also that definition of customer is more complex in public service than in the private sector due to the fact that customer can be a group, individual or local community. Main findings in Brysland & Curry’s study were that there can be found a link between the importance of service reliability and the implementation of a quality manage-ment system to help ensure the reliability which was raised as the most important factor when studying the gap between expectations and perceptions between ser-vice providers and customers.

Twaithes (1999: 500-514) studies and tries to identify from the extant literature, covering services marketing, service quality and sport tourism, salient issues spe-cific to the delivery of service quality in the sport tourism environment mainly based on principles of Parasuraman’s gap model. The study results indicated that the service quality represents a customer’s subjective interpretation of his/her experience and will be affected by a diverse range of stimuli, incumbent on

man-agement to be aware of the factors that influence customer perceptions, during, before and after the service encounter. Also, there should be appreciation that customers will use their own definitions of service quality, which may not neces-sarily correspond to those used by management. Because sports tourists are in-variably in close proximity to each other and often share time, space and utensils, there is potential for both positive and negative interactions. Sport tourism or-ganizations should seek understanding about their customers and appreciate the extent to which different quality dimensions are prioritised.

There are many issues to be found from the researches to improve quality through gap analysis. To summarise, recognition of the differences and relationships be-tween different dimensions (functional and technical) is the key for planning, con-trolling and implementation of the service quality offered in a way that service quality gaps can be prevented and minimised. In service performance the gap is in the function of co-operation, perceived control, trust, commitment and em-ployee fit which have significant influence on quality. A gap can also be found between manager’s perceptions of consumers and actual consumer expectations as well as in relationships between buyer and seller. These gaps should be open for discussion in order to find solutions, and by opening and revealing the gaps the understanding of the seller-buyer relationship can be increased. Increasing numbers of gaps or a high number of inter-organizational gaps can be seen as indicators of difficulties between companies. Responsiveness was found to influ-ence internal quality the most. Reliability was the foremost criterion customers consider in evaluating a company’s quality of service. Communication problems were clearly found, and listening to correct interpretations of client expectations is a way to minimize gaps. A significant perception gap can also be due to less pro-duction competence.