performance with emotional state (Perry & Williams, 1998; Russell & Cox, 2000; Robazza et al., 2008). When trained correctly and able to recreate the optimal emotional experience and stay in that zone prior to competition, athletes were found to be more likely to stay in the zone, compared to those who were outside of their zone before the performance or game (Syrjä, Hanin, Pesonen, 1995; Robazza et al., 2004). Also, with emotion comes physical energy and when directed properly could lead to increased performance; however, when misdirected and uncontrolled, could lead to unfavorable results (Jones, 2003). Past research has found that “athletes trained to pay attention to their current mental states before and during competition, and to contrast current conditions with previously
established optimal-dysfunctional conditions, were able to adjust their emotional states and improve performance” (Annesi, 1998; Cohen, Tenenbaum, & English, 2008; Robazza et al., 2004; Robazza et al., 2008).
A secondary implication of this study is the lack of awareness that the coaches have of their athletes’ emotions. Hanson and Gould (1988) stated that coaches, as a group, are poor judge of their athletes’ anxiety levels. They also pressed on the fact that the task of assessing their athlete’s emotions correctly is already very difficult, and that poor
communication between the coach and athlete could make it even more so. Sport success is dependent on good communication between the coach and athlete (Mancini & Agnew 1978; Hanson & Gould, 1988). Coaches need to be aware that, regardless of their efforts;
and that though it is ultimately up to the athlete to recognize and control their own
emotions, the coach should be there to help educate their athletes on how to do just that—as coaching is as much about teaching psychological skills as it is about teaching physical skills (Martens, 1981; Hanson & Gould, 1988).
6.5 Future Research
Future researchers willing to replicate this study would be recommended to change a number of things.
First, replicating this study with a larger sample with more teams would allow for results to be more generalizable with regards to gaining knowledge about feeling states
prior to games. In addition, finding a more diverse sample could be useful as well, to add to its generalizability. A sample with both men and women could question past findings that female athletes are more likely than male athletes to express their emotions (Neal & Tutko, 1975; Olcott, 1979; Hanson & Gould, 1988), and that women, compared to men, have been found to report higher levels of both types of anxiety (trait and state) (Martens, 1977;
Martens et al., 1983; Passer, 1984; Hanson & Gould, 1988). An important consideration, however, is that women may just more honest in completing the questionnaire than men (Hanson and Gould, 1988). Replicating the study with a sample consisting of different genders, various ages, ethnicities, multiple sport teams, and competitive levels would be ideal.
Second, the reliance on the description of only a single experience may not have been all that accurate in defining typicality of these experiences. If the study were to be replicated, it would be suggested to take an IZOF-based approach to the assessment, which would consist of, first, looking at the individual’s history and past games, then taking a look at the relevant emotional content and afterwards defining the optimal and
dysfunctional intensities for each emotion – this would only be complete after a number of self-ratings in specific practice and competition situations (Hanin, 2003). However, an alternative suggestion would be to follow Robazza et al. (2008) who asked their participants to recall how they usually felt before both successful and unsuccessful performances, thus looking at typically good and bad experiences.
Third, the methodological method itself could be alternated in future studies,
especially after the feedback given by the coaches. For one, the coaches expressed that they believed they would have done better if the emotional profiles were created in a more specific manner, such as completed right after a single game or over one specific season.
Though this would have its own limitations in that it would be studying the coaches’
knowledge of their athletes’ states in a particular situation, instead of overall—it could still provide the field with valuable information. In addition, the coaches also expressed that having to match the 11 profiles to the 11 names was very difficult, and it would be
recommended to cluster the players into smaller groups, as this may improve the likelihood that the profiles are matched correctly due to the fact that it simplifies the task.
Finally, it was difficult to develop a concrete conclusion from the data found for the comparisons according to position due to the small sample size. However, further research looking at feeling states according to position in soccer players could lead to interesting results. Research with the aim of creating a psychobiosocial soccer profile based on the IZOF model, as recommended by Hanin (2000), would be fruitful to the field. It would aid in the coach-athlete relationship, awareness, and communication; and, as explained by Hanin, “as soon as dysfunctional emotions are recognized, this awareness on the part of the players and a coach leads to new optimal emotional states in key players affecting the rest of the team” (2000).
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