Effectiveness of PST

The current state of knowledge regarding PST is posted as effective for attaining optimal athletic performance and the benefit of PST is widely reported (Gill &

Williams, 2008; Vealey, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 2015; Weinberg & Williams, 2006). A number of literature reviews and previous studies verify that planned psychological interventions and programs are effective in enhancing athletic performance (e.g. Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Massey, Meyer & Mullen, 2015;

Weinberg & Gould, 2015).

Weinberg & Williams (2006) and Weinberg & Gould (2015) identified 45 studies where some process of psychological skills training was introduced in competitive sport settings; 85% of the these studies found positive performance effects in sports like karate, skiing, boxing, gymnastics, baseball, tennis and figure skating. In other studies it has been shown that PST can significantly improve the performance level in different sports, e.g. in basketball (Shitrit, 2001), ice hockey (Schuijers, 2002), golf (Ramsey, Cumming & Edwards 2008), rugby (Sharp, Woodcock, Holland, Cumming & Duda, 2013), table tennis (Van Raalte & Britton 2002) and in volleyball (AL- Haliq, Khasawneh & Al-Akor, 2013).

The analysis of a large number of interventions indicated moderate to large positive effects on performance for PST interventions (Weinberg & Williams, 2006;

Weinberg & Gould, 2015). Positive relationship between confidence and performance is well supported in the sport literature (Machida, Ward & Vealey, 2012; Hays, Thomas, Maynard & Butt, 2010) and self-regulation seems to be an important source of confidence among high level athletes (Duda, Cumming &

Balaguer, 2005). Zinsser, Bunker & Williams (2006) presented that there is a direct correlation between self-confidence and success. In a study by Hays et al. (2010), high sport confidence facilitated sport performance through its positive effects on athletes’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors.

According to Burton & Raedeke (2008), PST can help athletes handle competitive stress and feel self-confident but it can also improve performance in school; it is

also a training in life-skills, for example learning how to handle pressure and criticism. Hays (2000) also claim that it is not just athletes who can utilize the PST.

In her study performing artists responded to techniques focusing on performance enhancement very well. In a study by Clark and Williamon (2011), PST was delivered to students at the music conservatoire and the results indicated greater levels of self-awareness, confidence, facilitative views and heightened control over anxiety and healthier perspectives toward music-making. Their results showed significant changes in participants practice activities and increase in their self-efficacy to performing. Similar findings can be found from the study by Laukka and Quick (2011). A third non-sport example presents a study where psychological skills training were given to military personnel, to be exact, for soldiers (DeWiggins et al., 2010). Researchers found that when teaching psychological skills to soldiers they not only learned what tools should be used but also when and how to apply those tools in specific real life situations. McCrory, Cobley and Marchant (2013) got similar results in their military recruits study; recruits learned to apply psychological skills in their tasks successfully after a relatively short 10 day- PST period.

Other example from non- sport domain which relates to PST, concerns health care and education. Botvin & Griffin (2014) stated that life skills training [LST], which is a competence enhancement based preventive intervention, emphasizes on drug resistance skills training within the context of a generic personal and social skills training model. In LST, similar methods than in PST are applied e.g. goal-setting, relaxation and imagery. These basic psychological skills are taught and applied as addressing the risk and protective factors associated e.g. with drug use initiation.

LST is one of the most thoroughly evaluated evidence-based drug abuse prevention program for middle school students.

So, if coaching or teaching is seen as a dynamic and interactive process, as Paquette and Sullivan (2012) suggest, and if psychological skills training can be applied to all athletes at all levels (Weinberg & Williams, 2006), for performing artists, soldiers and health care, it should be worth to teach these skills in other settings, e.g. in high school as Smith & Smoll (2002) and Sharp et al. (2013) suggested.

1.3.1.1 Effectiveness of various psychological skills

Goal setting, as previously mentioned, is one of the most popular motivational techniques for enhancing performance and productivity in business, education, and sport (Forsblom, Konttinen & Lintunen, 2015; Marchant, 2000; Rovio, Eskola, Gould & Lintunen, 2011; Jaakkola & Rovio, 2012; Weinberg & Gould, 2015).

Several reviews and meta-analyses have supported the fact that goal setting is an effective performance enhancement strategy, when the goals are set specifically, measurably, and they are moderately difficult (e.g. Birrer & Morgan, 2010; David, Megginson & Clutterbuck, 2013; Gill & Williams, 2008; Gould, 2006; Weinberg

& Williams, 2006; Weinberg & Gould, 2015). In a study by Bandura and Locke (2003), set personal goals together with perceived self-efficacy and self- confidence, enhanced motivation and performance attainments in athletes.

The improvement of arousal regulation skills like breath control and relaxation gives athletes a chance to reduce or increase their level of arousal efficiently (Pineschi & DiPietro, 2013). By increasing your breathing rate you can generate and produce more energy, reduce tension and activate your regulative systems (Weinberg & Gould, 2015). Utilizing selective attention or concentration permits essential information to gain access to the nervous system (Abernathy, Maxwell, Masters, Van Der Kamp & Jackson, 2007) and proper concentration is said to be essential for performing at ones best (Wilson, Peper and Schmid, 2006).

Self-talk helps to focus and enhance concentration for the task at hand. It is also a useful tool in enhancing motivation, increasing confidence and self-esteem, regulating arousal levels, acquiring new skills, improving mental preparation and sustaining effort (Hamilton, Scott & MacDougall, 2006; Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis & Theodorakis, 2011; Weinberg & Gould, 2015). When it is effective, self-talk is positive, realistic and concise (Roos-Salmi, 2012).

Imagery is often used psychological coaching method in sports (Kataja, 2012;

Weinberg & Gould, 2015; Williams, Cooley, Newell, Weibull & Cumming, 2013;

Williams & Cumming, 2011). Studies show that imagery is very useful in enhancing performance by using all the senses to re-create or create an experience in the mind; this helps athletes to perform better and increase self-confidence (e.g.

Omar-Fauzee, Wan Daud, Abdullah & Rashid, 2009; Sadeghi et al., 2010).

Imagery has scientific evidence to support its value in learning and performing, especially in motor skills. These studies have been conducted across different levels and in many sports (Weinberg & Gould, 2015).

Sharp et al. (2013) found that participants believed the PST program to be an interactive and a well-planned program which increased their understanding of PST methods and awareness of PST strategies to manage their performance. The participants’ opinion was that it was very important that their coaches developed a greater knowledge and understanding of PST methods. They also believed that perceived psychological skills and methods they learnt through the PST program were transferable to other sports and areas of their lives (e.g., school). In another study where Olympic athletes were interviewed, they appraised the importance of mental preparation and training; mental training and discipline was a critical component of their success (Weinberg & Williams, 2006; Weinberg & Gould, 2015).

Despite of above mentioned, by seeing a psychologist people still tend to react as if there is something wrong with the person. Massey et al. (2015) speculate that maybe the perceived effectiveness of sport psychology services is one possible explanation for athletes not engaging in PST routines. Gee (2010) remarks that just like people suffering from mental illness often avoid mental health services, for the fear of being negatively labeled, athletes are using the same tactics as they seem to avoid the services of sport psychologists for these same reasons, e.g. they think that sport psychology is only for problematic athletes and it is the reason why so many athletes remain resistant to adopting and maintaining a PST routine (Massey et al., 2015). But this should not be the case; it is not a clinical but educational approach that should be used in and to promote sport and exercise psychology. The word educational here is the key; working to improve one’s psychological skills should not be seen as a weakness but rather as a way to improve performance and growth as human (Weinberg & Williams, 2006). Weinberg & Gould (2015) claim that psychological skills should be trained and practiced systematically and similar to physical skills and it also should be goal-oriented, planned, controlled and evaluated.

After any PST program an individual should be able to self-regulate his or her internal functioning in the desired manner. By self-regulation Weinberg & Gould (2015, 257) mean “the ability to work toward one’s short- and long- term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors”.

Vealey (2007) and Weinberg & Gould (2015) argue that the ultimate goal of PST is to help individuals function on their own in the world around them. Hence, the aim of the PST training could be summarized as to strengthen participants’ self-regulation and mental toughness in different situations.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that there is a lot of evidence on the effectiveness of PST but very little or no research at all on how to pedagogically plan, implement and evaluate a PST program. For example, one of the best studies in the field, DeWiggins et al. (2010) Personal performance plan, presents a meritious program on how psychological skills can bring mental strength for life but pervasive research about the teaching and evaluating processes of a PST in a holistic way is still an under-explored area as is how PST is experienced by the participants. These questions were something this study aimed to answer for.