Earlier  research  on  experiential  services

2.2.2  Earlier  research  on  experiential  services  

Grönroos  (2007)  emphasises  that  “[a]ll  services  are  perceived  as  either  positive,   neutral  or  negative  experiences”  (2007,  p.  12).  This  way  of  thinking  refers  to  the   service  experience  that  is  gained  during  the  service  interaction.  A  customer  will   have   a   service   experience   regardless   of   the   type   of   service   (s)he   is   consuming.  

However,  the  nature  of  the  service  experience  can  differ  in  relation  to  the  type  of   service  consumed.    

According  to  Hirschman  and  Holbrook  (1982),  consumers  purchase  products   and   services   mainly   for   utilitarian   or   hedonic   purposes   and,   for   instance,   products   and   services   such   as   art   and   tourism   have   predominantly   a   hedonic   meaning.  In  experiential  consumption,  consumers  are  seen  to  focus  on  hedonic   aspects   and   functions   of   a   product   or   a   service,   but   it   is   also   recognised   that   products   and   services   have   both   utilitarian   and   hedonic   functions   (Hirschman   and  Holbrook,  1982).  Experiential  aspects  of  consumption  have  been  highlighted   by   several   authors   (Holbrook   and   Hirschman,   1982;   Holbrook,   O’Shaughnessy   and   Bell,   1990;   Levy,   1959)   and   it   is   noted   that   the   experiential   elements   of   consumption   processes   are   characterised   comparing   the   experiential   approach   to   traditional   approaches   (Frochot   and   Batat,   2013,   p.   24,   adapted   from   Bourgeon  and  Filser,  1995;  Schmitt,  1999).  Table  4  lists  attributes  that  are  used  to   illustrate   the   experiential   nature   of   consumption.   These   characteristics   also   fit   experiential  services.    

Table 4: Characteristics of ‘experiential’

Characteristics Author(s)

Involvement or participation of an individual

Knutson and Beck, 2003; Carú and Cova, 2003;

LaSalle and Britton, 2003; Shaw and Ivens, 2005

Internal Knutson and Beck, 2003; Carú and Cova, 2003

Personal Schmitt, 1999

Value provided/emerged (hedonic/utilitarian), focus on hedonic component

Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Arnould and Price, 1993; Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Frochot and Batat, 2013

Emotions and feelings, emotional benefits

Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Frochot and Batat, 2013; Gentile et al., 2007; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Schmitt, 1999; Schmitt and Zarantonello, 2013

Non-verbal and sensorial stimuli Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Frochot and Batat, 2013; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Levy, 1959

Service consumed for itself Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Frochot and Batat, 2013; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Levy, 1959

Holistic perception, difficulty to elaborate concise expectations

Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Frochot and Batat, 2013

Symbolic Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Levy, 1959

Sensorial Gentile et al., 2007; Schmitt, 1999; Schmitt and Zarantonello, 2013

Cognitive Gentile et al., 2007; Schmitt, 1999; Schmitt and Zarantonello, 2013

Lifestyle Gentile et al., 2007; Schmitt, 1999

Relational Gentile et al., 2007; Schmitt, 1999

Pragmatic Gentile et al., 2007

Outcome: pleasure and memory Bourgeon and Filser, 1995; Carú and Cova, 2003;

Frochot and Batat, 2013

Examples  of  experiential  services  often  come  from  experience  industries  such  as   tourism  and  hospitality  (e.g.  restaurants,  theme  parks,  tourist  destinations),  and   in  previous  studies,  experiential  services  are  in  many  cases  described  by  giving  

examples  of  types  of  services  that  can  be  regarded  as  experiential.  For  instance,   services   that   can   be   regarded   as   experiential   are   hair   salon   services   (Albers-­‐‑

Miller   and   Stafford,   1999;   Dabholcar   and   Walls,   1999;   Patterson   and   Smith,   2003),  travel  services  (Patterson  and  Smith,  2003),  cruise  vacations  (Duman  and   Mattila,   2005)   nightclub   and   restaurant   services,   entertainment   and   activity   services,   shopping   services   (Zomerdijk   and   Voss,   2011),   vacation   and   exercise   services  (McColl-­‐‑Kennedy  and  Fetter,  2001).  In  addition  of  experiential  service,   different   concepts   are   also   used   to   express   the   experiential   aspects   of   consumption   in   services,   namely   ‘experience’,   ‘experiential   offering’,   and  

‘tourist  experience’  (Gupta  and  Vajic,  2000;  Pine  and  Gilmore,  1998;  Scott  et  al.,   2009;  Volo,  2009).  Table  5  presents  diverse  conceptualisations  and  definitions  of   these.    

Table 5: Experience as a service

Representations of experience as a service or experiential service

Author(s)

When a consumer buys an experience (s)he pays for the possibility to spend time and enjoy diverse memorable events that service providers “set on display”.

Mossberg, 2001; Pine and Gilmore, 1999

“An organization delivers an experiential service when it places the customer experience at the core of the service offering. Such organizations focus on the experience of customers when interacting with the organization rather than just the functional benefits following from the products and services delivered.”

Zomerdijk and Voss, 2011, p. 64

“…an experience involves learning during a period of time when the customers interact with different elements of a context created by the service provider. In the course of these interactions, during which activities and context reinforce each other, customers and service providers jointly create a unique, context-specific experience.”

Gupta and Vajic, 2000

Experiential services are services that customers can evaluate after they have been consumed/experienced.

McColl-Kennedy and Fetter, 2001 Compared to utilitarian services, the experiential services are

characterised by higher levels of employee contact and customisation having strong people orientation. Experiential services are also closely connected to hedonic consumption as they are more personal and connected to motivations and attitudes of an individual, and are associated with emotions.

Albers-Miller and Stafford, 1999; Stafford and Day, 1995

The result of an experience “may (must?) be something extremely significant and unforgettable for the consumer immersed into the experience”.

Carú and Cova, 2003

The  representations  of  experience  as  a  service  or  experiential  service  in  Table  5   shows   two   different   perspectives:   the   consumer   perspective   and   the   business   perspective.   For   instance,   Pine   and   Gilmore   (1998)   take   an   organisational   perspective  in  which  the  staging  of  an  experience  has  a  central  role,  even  though   they  acknowledge  that  “experiences  are  inherently  personal,  existing  only  in  the   mind   of   an   individual   who   has   been   engaged   on   an   emotional,   physical,   intellectual,   or   even   spiritual   level”   (1998,   p.   99).   The   business   perspective   also   emphasise  the  element  of  interaction  and  employee  contact  in  service  provision   (Albers-­‐‑Miller   and   Stafford,   1999;   Gupta   and   Vajic,   2000;   Pine   and   Gilmore,   1998;   Stafford   and   Day,   1995;   Zomerdijk   and   Voss,   2011).   In   these   definitions,   the  experience  as  a  service  or  an  experiential  service  is  seen  to  be  something  that   is   also   delivered,   created   for   or   designed   for   a   consumer.   However,   several   authors   have   noted   that   a   company   cannot   provide   or   sell   experiences   but   experiences  can  be  facilitated  by  a  service  provider  (McColl-­‐‑Kennedy  et  al.,  2015;  

Schmitt   and   Zarantonello,   2013).   Schmitt   and   Zarantonello   (2013)   note   that   experiences   are   induced   private   events   that   occur   as   a   response   to   stimulation,   and   businesses   are   focusing   on   the   stimuli   that   may   induce   experiences   for   consumers.    

The   consumer   perspective   is   connected   to   the   internal   and   subjective   experience  of  an  individual.  In  experiential  services,  the  hedonic  aspects  in  seen   to   have   strong   role   in   the   consumption   (see   e.g.   Albers-­‐‑Miller   and   Stafford,   1999),  and  as  Carú  and  Cova  (2003)  note,  the  outcome  for  a  consumer  needs  to   be   something   significant   and   unforgettable.   Hence,   the   consumer   service   experience  of  experiential  service  includes  memorable  experiences.    

The  experiential  service  should  be  examined  from  two  different  perspectives.  

However,   the   definitions   presented   above   are   rather   limited   and   most   of   them   focus  either  on  the  business  or  the  consumer  perspective.  Some  of  them  also  fail   to   bring   forth   the   characteristics   of   experiential   services   on   a   wider   scale.   The   current  discussion  regarding  experiential  services  seems  to  be  limited  to  seeing   the   aim   and   motivation   of   consuming   services   as   mainly   hedonic   (e.g.   seeking   fun,   sensory   simulation,   arousal   and   enjoyment).   On   the   other   hand,   several   authors   have   contended   that   in   addition   to   hedonic   motivations,   eudaimonic   motivations   also   exist   at   the   experiential   level   (Waterman,   2005;   Waterman,   Schwartz   and   Conti,   2008).   Eudaimonia   includes   issues   such   as   self-­‐‑realisation,   personal   growth,   realisation   of   one’s   true   potential   and   making   life   fulfilling   (Ryan   and   Deci,   2000;   Ryff,   1989).   It   is   also   noted   that   consumption   is   increasingly  driven  by  the  need  for  self-­‐‑development  and  intellectual  aspiration   (Calver   and   Page,   2013;   Richards   and   Wilson,   2006;   Voigt,   Howat   and   Brown,   2010).   This   study   argues   that   consumption   of   an   experiential   service   may   be   motivated  both  hedonic  and  eudaimonic  motivations  and  it  can  provide  hedonic   and/or  eudaimonic  outcomes.      

Interaction   between   a   consumer   and   a   service   provider   is   also   seen   as   a   central  component  in  diverse  conceptualisations  (Table  5).  However,  memorable   experiences   do   not   necessarily   require   this   kind   of   dyadic   interaction,   but   the   memorable  experience  may  emerge  in  different  situations,  e.g.  watching  the  sun   set  on  holiday.    

It   is   widely   recognised   that   services   can   evoke   a   wide   range   of   positive   and   negative   emotions   such   as   pleasure,   fear,   excitement   and   boredom   (Koenig-­‐‑

Lewis   and   Palmer,   2010),   and   emotions   are   an   important   component   of   the   consumer   response   (Havlena   and   Holbrook,   1986;   Oliver,   1994;   Richins,   1997;  

Woodruff,   1993).   It   can   be   argued   that   consumers’   emotions   can   have   an   influence   on   their   service   preferences   and   varied   services   may   arouse   different   emotions   for   individual   consumers.   In   addition,   it   should   be   noted   that   consumers  bring  their  emotions  and  feelings  to  their  interactions  with  products   and  services  (Addis  and  Holbrook,  2001).  Addis  and  Holbrook  (2001)  bring  forth   that   the   emotions   of   a   consumer   during   a   consumption   experience   is   a   part   of   the   subjective   response   of   a   consumer.   According   to   Richins   (2007),   positive   experiences  usually  result  in  some  specific  positive  emotion,  such  as  happiness   or   pleasure,   and   negative   feelings   such   as   fear   or   frustration   are   typically   associated  with  negative  experiences.  However,  this  is  not  necessarily  the  case,   as   it   is   noted   that   eudaimonic   wellbeing   does   not   necessarily   exclude   negative   emotions,   as   people   may   experience   positive   psychological   growth   when   they   have   serious   life   challenges   (Ryff   and   Singer,   1998;   2003)   which   leads   to   a   situation  in  which  negative  emotions  may  result  to  positive  outcomes.  

It  is  noted  that  in  experiential  services,  the  focus  is  not  just  on  the  functional   benefits   to   be   derived   from   the   services   delivered   (Voss   and   Zomerdijk,   2007;  

Zomerdijk   and   Voss,   2011),   but   increasingly   on   the   experiential   value   a   consumer   obtains   from   the   consumer   service   experience.   In   this   study,   the   experiential   value   a   consumer   experiences   when   consuming   an   experiential   service  is  seen  as  the  core  of  the  service.  The  experiential  value  is  the  subjectively   evaluated   outcome   that   emerges   and   comes   through   the   service   consumption   process,   and   it   is   influenced   by   the   personal   characteristics,   emotions   and   feelings  of  a  consumer.  The  experiential  value  may  include  diverse  consumption   values   (Sheth,   Newman   and   Gross,   1991)   and   it   can   offer   both   extrinsic   and   intrinsic  benefits  (Mathwick  et  al.,  2001).    

This  study  agrees  with  the  notion  made  by  Scott  et  al.  (2009)  and  Walls  et  al.  

(2011)   that   the   experiential   concept   needs   to   be   approached   both   from   the   consumer   and   business   perspectives,   and   this   applies   also   to   experiential   services.  Hence,  based  on  the  discussion  above  it  is  noted  that  a  business  cannot   create  or  provide  an  experience  for  a  consumer,  but  it  can  offer  the  prerequisites   and   facilitate   the   experience.   The   experience   a   consumer   will   have   is   personal   and   includes   diverse   characteristics.   The   consumer   also   has   a   central   role   as   (s)he   is   intensively   involved   in   creating   the   experience.   Hence,   the   outcome   or   the   experiential   value   received   by   the   consumer   depends   on   the   situation   and  

prerequisites  of  the  experiential  service.  An  experiential  service  also  includes  an   interactional   element;   however   it   does   not   necessarily   refer   to   interaction   between   a   consumer   and   a   service   provider,   but   may   also   refer   to   interaction   with  other  consumers  or  interaction  with  the  environment.  

Based  on  the  discussions  above  in  this  study  an  experiential  service  is  defined   as  an  economic  activity  in  which  a  service  provider  provides  prerequisites  that   enable   a   consumer,   through   involvement,   to   experience   something   that   is   internal   and   emotionally   engaging   or   affective   and   appeals   to   a   consumer’s   hedonic  and/or  eudaimonic  motivations,  leading  to  experiential  value.