CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER SERVICES
3.1 Sources of Water Supplies
Water supply technology over time has tended to be influenced by various reasons, which include inter alias, availability of capital, water, topography of area to be sup-plied, the target users and water quantity and quality requirements. Availability of capital is central to all. A few years after 1895 the colony had no infrastructure and in general developed. The demand for water forced the settlers to use unimproved water from natural sources such as well, rain water, and spring water. As time pro-gressed, piped water took precedence and to date availability of water has become synonymous with piped water supply. Modes of water supply technologies over the years comprised of the following.
3.1.1 Water Condensing Plant
This is the oldest mechanised form of supply in Kenya. In 1895, a condensing plant was installed in Mombasa town to serve the railway construction. The plant was operated for four years1.
1 Whitehouse R. N (1902). To the Victoria Nyanza by the Uganda Railway. The Scottish Geographi-cal Magazine. April 1902.
3.1.2 Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting, whose lost glory is currently being re-visited globally, is among the earliest technologies used in the Country. Roof catchment was the chief supply of drinking water in the beginning of 1900. By 1908, the existing water supply sources in Mombasa from which the inhabitants obtained water included 55 rain water cement tanks receiving water from corrugated iron roofs2.
A report on the site and buildings of Rabai Station submitted to His Excellen-cy the Acting Governor by S. L. Hinde, Provincial Commissioner, and Milne, the Principal Medical Officer, May 18th 1909 revealed the following3:
“The Seyidie Province (Current Coast Province) is more unfortunate than most parts of the protectorate in its scarcity of potable water; there are practically no permanent streams, rivers, or springs in existence, only rain holes and pools left in dried up river beds” --- “The tank attached to the house for the storing of rain water (practically the only system in the Seyidie Province for the supply of drink-ing water to Europeans) appears to be in a good state of repair. The manhole traps fit closely and properly. The surface is cracked, how deep we are unable to say”.
Shimoni station within the same province in 1913 attests to the fact that rain-water harvesting at the time was an all important source of rain-water. The Assistant District Commissioner wrote to the Provincial Commissioner on the question of water supply on January 9th 1913 notes that:
“the Executive Engineer of the Public Works Department promised to take up the question of the supply of a number of water tanks to enable me to conserve sufficient rainwater at this station for drinking purposes for the 20 askaris, prison warders, prisoners, boat boys and office staff in all about 35 souls4”
In Mombasa all the houses situated in Kizingo and Pas Serani were supplied with large cement tanks for the accumulation of rainwater collected from the corrugat-ed iron roofs most of them attachcorrugat-ed to houses occupicorrugat-ed by Europeans and several having been built by enterprising natives for the purpose of selling water). This
2 British East Africa Protectorate (1911) Taveta Water Supply, Ref. PC/Coast/ 1/15/133, Kenya Natio nal Archives, Nairobi, Kenya.
3 Hinde, S. L. and Milne, A.D (1909). Rabai Station. Kenya National Archives, Ref. PC/Coast/
1/12/114, Nairobi, Kenya.
4 Provincial Commissioner Seyidie (1913). Tanks for Shimoni, Kenya National Archives, PC/Coast/
1/14/63, Nairobi, Kenya.
form of supply continued until 1916 when the Mombasa water supply was com-missioned having started in 1911.
The Executive Engineer, PWD, Mombasa on 9th September 1934 wrote to the Director of Public Works Department on Kilifi water supply identifying the exist-ing water supplies as: A supply of blackish water pumped from a well to a storage tank on hill and gravitating from there to a number of connections in the boma;
and a rainwater catchment area consisting of: A large concrete pan 87 ft. x 84 ft.
drawing into 4 inter-connected concrete lined underground tanks, having a joint capacity of 11,132ft3. A small concrete pan 30ft x 20ft drawing into a concrete lined underground tank having a capacity of approximately 4,544ft35.
The Engineer went ahead to note that during the year no difficulty was experi-enced in the pumps system and there was a likelihood of small surplus of funds remaining at the end of the year. However, the rainwater catchment scheme had given considerable trouble, both the concrete catchment apron and the tanks needing repair. No funds had been provided for the latter’s service, which was an integral part of Kilifi Boma Water System and as important or more important than the pumping scheme as it provided the whole drinking and cooking water for the Boma. The engineer sought authority to spend the surplus from the pump-ing scheme to make good the faults from the rainwater catchment scheme.
Before 1902, Kavirondo, which consisted of South (current Nyanza Province and Kericho district –Bomet and Buret included) and North Kavirondo (current Western Province), was in the Ugandan territory. As put by the then Commissioner (title later changed to governor in 1908), Sir Charles Eliot, that ‘To cross the lake is like visiting another country’. The whole country intervening between Lake Victoria and Naivasha was actually under the Ugandan protectorate. Before any scheme of development could be launched, the area east of the lake had to be detached from its nominal incorporation in the Kabaka’s Kingdom and joined up with the East Africa Protectorate. This was done in 19026.
The development of water supply in this region coincided with the reaching of the Uganda Railway in Port Florence (Kisumu) in 1901. The Railway developed its supply in 1901 in Kisumu which also served the public till 1926 when a supply from Kibos River constructed by the Public Works Department was commissioned.
Therefore, Kisumu experienced the first organised supply in Kavirondo area.
5 Colony and protectorate of Kenya (1929-1949). Water supplies in Kilifi District including Malindi, Kenya National Archives, ref. CA/17/89, Nairobi, Kenya.
6 Colony and protectorate of Kenya (1913-1959) Kisumu water supply, BY/35/2 Kenya National Archives, Nairobi, Kenya.
Prior to organised water supply, Kavirondo (Current Nyanza Province) obtained its water sources for the inhabitants from: Springs, Rivers, Furrows, and Rainwater (stored in tanks for drinking water especially for Europeans)7.
The Health Office Kisumu writing to the Assistant Engineer (Maintenance Division) Uganda Railway Kisumu on the water supply wrote ‘During a house to house inspection of water tanks attached to the houses in Kisumu, it was noticed that these were in a very unsatisfactory state.
As inhabitants generally depend on their rainwater tanks for their supply of drinking water, it is very essential that these should be looked after and kept in perfect order- it is well known that the public water supply is not suitable for drinking purposes8.The extracts serve to show that by 1921 Kisumu had a public water supply which was probably built in 1901 when the railway reached there. In addition, rainwater was still a complementary supply.
In 1953, a rock catchment was constructed in Tausa, Taita District. Generally, rock catchments were common from 1895 to 1950s in the region between the coast and Nairobi prompted by the climate obtainable in these areas and the physical conditions favouring the same.
By 1929, Lamu Township was relying on well water and rainwater for drinking.
A petition to the Commissioner of Customs by workers of the department stationed at Lamu illustrates this. On 9th December 1929, the workers wrote the petition, which read in part,
“we are experiencing great difficulty for want of drinking water (Rainwater) at pres-ent. The staffs were getting drinking water from the prisons. It has been stopped since long time. The offices of all the departments such as Administration, Prisons, Medical, and School, had their own water tanks and used rain water to drink. The question of the people here, they use samba water and we should say that of course, it is very tasteful but not healthy and it often comes very dirty and especially it is not good to use it in rainy season. The well water is very bad and salty. The Sub Assis-tant Surgeon (SAS), Lamu, advises us to use rainwater to drink for the health and informs to make arrangements for the water tank as early as possible”.
From this piece of information, it can be safely taken that the supply was from rainwater, and well water. In response to the above petition, which was also copied to the Medical department, the medical officer in-charge of Lamu recommended a
7 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1913-1959) Kisumu Water Supply, BY/35/2 Kenya National Archives, Nairobi, Kenya.
8 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1913-1959) Kisumu Water Supply, BY/35/2 Kenya National Archives, Nairobi, Kenya.
tank for the customs department from a health point of view. This actually confirms that the township had not got a piped supply9.
In 1942, Wassin Islands within Kwale district in the Coastal region depended on rainwater. This same year the DC wrote to the PC submitted:
”that the only freshwater supplies on Wassin Island, are (a) a large communal rain water catchment basin, constructed with lime and cement and (b) One or two very small private basins of similar construction”10.
3.1.3 Ground Water Supply
Groundwater is of considerable importance in the socio-economy aspect of people’s life, more so than it might seem given that it only constitutes about 5% of the Re-public’s renewable water resources; in the 2009 Census, 43% of rural and 24% of urban households stated that they relied on a spring, well or borehole as their main source of water. Its intrinsic advantages – its ubiquity, the speed with which it can be developed, the relatively low capital cost of development, its drought resilience and its ability to meet water needs “on demand” – make it a critical component in rural water supply and for small (and sometimes large) towns, as well as domestic water, irrigation, industry and commercial uses. However, despite its importance, the value of groundwater is not fully appreciated, nor is its vulnerability properly understood.
Kenya does not have policy, legislation and institutions dedicated specifically to groundwater management. Rather, groundwater management is subsumed under broader policy, legal and institutional frameworks dealing with the management of water resources, or more broadly, natural resources, and with land use and physical planning. The existing policy, legal and institutional frameworks are deficient from the perspective of groundwater management. An overhaul would be required to bring them in line with the requirements of frameworks for sound groundwater management. Deficiencies have been identified in key areas, notably over-arching and multi-sectoral policies11.
9 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1929-57). Water Supplies in Lamu District, Kenya National Archives, Ref. No. CA/17/10/1, Nairobi, Kenya.
10 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1950-57). Water supplies Teita District including Taveta. Kenya National Archives, Ref: CA/17/108, Nairobi, Kenya.
11 Nyanchaga E.N and Ombongi K.S. (2007). History of Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya, 1895-2002. Environmental History of Water, Chapter 21. IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London UK.2007.
3.1.4 Springs, Streams and Rivers
Naivasha: The First proposal to bring water to the Township of Naivasha was put in and acceded to by the government in 1913 and a provision to supply water to Naivasha made in 1914 estimates. The plaque outbreak caused the scheme to be shelved. Up to 1928, the people of Naivasha obtained water from rivers and streams nearby when the town public wells were sunk.
Fort Hall: By 1911, water supply for Fort Hall boma comprised of rainwater and conveyance from the river with a cart for which a rate was levied. In absence of a cart, more people were needed to do the job, and convicts and station hands were used. Convicts were also employed on carrying water, road-making, grass-cutting, cutting wood and shamba work.
Kitui: The Kitui Township was gazetted in official gazette in 1st June 1909 and by 1911, water was drawn from privately owned well and river Kalundu12.
Mumias and Kisii: By 1911, water supply was obtained from natural springs and was satisfactory13.
Nyeri: By 1915, water for drinking purposes was fetched from Chania River and from rainwater collected in tanks. For other purposes there was a water furrow running through the township14.
Kericho: Before 1914, springs and streams were the main source of water in Kericho.
During the dry seasons, the convicts and porters fetched the government officials’
water from adjoining streams in Kericho town by 192015.
Simba Springs in Maasai District in Ngong: The Maasai Kept vast herds of cattle and during the dry period of the year the Simba springs came in handy for watering the herds. In 1948 the springs had been well protected and constructed to enable efficient and healthy watering of the herds. The1948 drought was so severe for the
12 District Commissioner, Kitui (1911). Annual Report 1911. Kenya National Archives, DC/KTI/1/
1/1, 1911.
13 District Commissioner (1911). Report by the Provincial Commissioner for the Twelve Months Ending March 31st 1911. Kenya National Archives, PC/NZA/1/1/6, Ref: 587/18/1. 8th April 1911.
14 District Commissioner, Nyeri (1915). Annual Report–Nyeri District for the Year Ending 31st March 1915. Kenya National Archives, DC/NYI/1/2, Ref: 125/6/15. 10th April 1915.
15 Colony and protectorate of Kenya (1920-1923)., Kericho district Annual Report, Dc/Ker/1/1, Kenya National Archives, Nairobi Kenya.
large herds that the springs could not cope with the demand and more boreholes were sought16.
3.1.5 Pans and Dams
Construction of dams and pans involves impounding the surface supplies. Accord-ing to water development division, dam construction work was primarily a water augmentation exercise. Due to scarcity of water for irrigation, watering the stock or for general human consumption, dams were constructed to cub the water shortage problem particularly during the dry season. The water development division advised on the dam construction sites. It was a significant exercise particularly in water scarce areas of Northern frontier region. Before 1950, dam construction was an individual or community affair usually under the guidance of the provincial administration.
The Public Works Department and the Ministry of Agriculture’s Dam Construction Unit became very active in 1950s.
Kericho: Construction of water dams and pans was in Kenya first recorded in 1914. In 1914, an Indian, V. Anandji, constructed the first water dam and its mill on Riondoseik River. Other Indians followed suit and constructed six more dams between the years 1916 and 192017.
Kwale: In Kwale, Mwavumbo and Kikomani dams, constructed in 1927 are the oldest recorded dams.
Machakos District: In 1929 considerable progress was made in dam construction in Machakos District. Three dams were built at Kiasu, one at Masii and another in upper Mbooni. Two at Kilungu and one at Kalome and one in lower Mbooni were enlarged. By this time the natives had recognised the usefulness of a dam and thus the former opposition was withdrawn. Although rain destroyed the dams, repairs were accordingly done. By the end of 1928, 43 water connections had been made. During December, fencing of the catchments area commenced to prevent any contamination of water18. In 1930 eight dams were constructed in Machakos
16 Colony and protectorate of Kenya (1938-1948). Water supplies, Simba springs. Kenya national Archives, Ref: RP/21/19, Nairobi Kenya.
17 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1920-1923). Kericho District Annual Report, Dc/Ker/1/1, Kenya National Archives, Nairobi Kenya.
18 Senior Commissioner, (1929). Ukamba Province, Annual Report 1929. Kenya National Archives, PC/CP/4/2/3. 1929.
reserve and several others were repaired or added to bringing to total of 30 dams.
The district commissioner reported that the natives by this time appreciated their usefulness and made applications themselves for construction19.
Northern Frontier District: In the Northern frontier region, pans and dams were the most widely carried out water development work. It was usually done both before and after the short rains and depending on the locality of rainfall. It was cheap, needed no expertise, and was easy to dig. Pans and dams required constant cleaning and deepening to improve the retention level and reduce pollution. Before 1920, water supplies were limited to collection from various surface rivers, springs and sparsely distributed water holes. The inhabitants also excavated water from the sandy beds after heavy rains20.The DC coordinated the manual work done by the paid gang or communal labour.
In Moyale, pans and dams were usually dug in large numbers for maximum conservation. The most significant pan in Moyale was the Alati pan, which belonged to Ajuran and Degodia tribes. During good rains Alati pan was usually full and supplied adequate water to the two tribes. Various tribes were allocated different roles in pan improvement. Pan digging was purely a communal affair21
In 1945 a number of water pans were dug in all districts in the province. Camels pulling plough and scoops proved a satisfactory method, though the task needed a bulldozer. There were large pans dug at Banissa and Hidan Golja in the Mandera District. At Wajir concrete tops were built for four wells for the Degodia and four for the Ogaden. The Dela pan was well dug by the Degodia and held plenty of water at the end of the year22.
In 1946 the Development Committee had approved, the expenditure of 485,700 pounds over a period of ten years on the provision of water supplies in the Northern Frontier District, Samburu and Turkana as it was recommended by Dr Dixey. In all the districts in the NFD gangs of tribesmen were employed under the supervision of the District Commissioners to excavate pans and tanks in areas far away from the permanent water supplies. Sites were chosen where rain water used to collect in a slight declivity in the ground and tanks were dug as deep as possible. The average evaporation rate of water was three metre a year. Work was being done by local tribe
19 Provincial Commissioner, (1930). Ukamba Province, Annual Report 1930. Kenya National Ar-chives, PC/CP/4/2/3. 1930.
20 Thomson C.B (1917). Reference No 11/120 of 4/5/17. Kenya National Archives, PC/Coast/
1/15/71, Ref: 143/39/17. 12th May 1917.
21 DC, Moyale (1945). Digging Water Pans/Improvement to Wells. Kenya National Archives, BB.7/
29, Ref: PW/8/4/102. June 1945.
22 Provincial Commissioner, (1945). Annual Report Northern Frontier District, 1945. Kenya Nation-al Archives. PC/NFD/1/1/8, 1945.
labourers and they were paid at the normal rates, while the headmen supervised the work and provided camels for carting water and meat for the men23.
In 1946 a total of twenty tanks and earth dams were excavated, nine cement well tops were constructed in the Wajir District, and three rock pools successfully dammed up with concrete walls in Mandera. In addition, three boreholes were completed with plant acquired from the army in Isiolo24.
The Wajir 3-year development schemes continued under the District Develop-ment Officer and later under the supervision of District Commissioner. In 1947 two new pans were made on the Ali Gollo track about 19 and 27 kilometres North of Tarbaj, an old pan at Sunkela deepened and the dam at Singu repaired and deepened.
However, on Dr. Classen’s advice the construction of pans was discontinued in favour of deeper tanks due to effects of high evaporation loss. For example, at Wajir in the dry season, the evaporation loss was almost one foot a month. In order to
However, on Dr. Classen’s advice the construction of pans was discontinued in favour of deeper tanks due to effects of high evaporation loss. For example, at Wajir in the dry season, the evaporation loss was almost one foot a month. In order to