Descriptions of Intrinsic Empowerment

When the academic literature discusses the subject of empowerment in relation to individual, it is often called either psychological or intrinsic empowerment (e.g., Koberg et al. 1999; Ruohotie 2001; Siitonen 1999; Spreitzer et al. 1999). Psychological empowerment refers to the intrinsic mental processes and feelings that are connected to empowerment.

Spreitzer and others (1999) and Thomas together with Velthouse (1990) have suggested that psychological empowerment can be defined by breaking the concept into four main dimensions. These dimensions are: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact. All of these dimensions relate to intrinsic work motivation. Meaning has to do with the individual’s beliefs, values, and behaviour in relation to the role she/he is supposed to play at work. If the task and the individual’s values, beliefs and behaviour do not match, intrinsic motivation is reduced. By competence Thomas and Velthouse refer to a person’s belief to perform a task with skill. Such a belief boosts intrinsic motivation. Self-determination refers to choice in initiating and choosing an action. A person has a sense of autonomy in starting and performing activities. Self-determination is also related to having a say about work methods, pace, and effort.

Impact, in turn, has to do with influencing strategic, administrative, and operative outcomes at work. Impact could also be defined as the opposite of learned helplessness.

(Spreitzer et al. 1999; Thomas & Velthouse 1990.)

Koberg and others identify psychological empowerment as a motivational construct. It relates to the individual cognitions and perceptions that form the feelings that determine the behavioural and psychological efforts one will put into work. Based on the level of feeling empowered, a person will mobilize cognitive resources and act on a given

situation in order to control it. They also see that empowerment will boost self-efficacy beliefs and positive expectations as to the realization of expected results. The feeling of empowerment is not static. It can differ depending on a task at hand or the context among other things. Therefore, psychological empowerment is related to personal cognitions that are, at least partially, shaped by the environment. As such, it can be looked at from the perspective of the social cognitive theory (SCT). SCT focuses on the individual explanations, interpretations, and attitudes related to work in a given context.

(Koberg et al. 1999, 72-73.)

Kincheloe (2003) discusses teaching profession from an empowerment point of view.

His views could also be discussed in an organizational context. However, since his discussion relates in many ways to teachers’ professional growth, we find it legitimate to treat his views in relation psychological aspects of empowerment. If Kincheloe’s work is looked at from the empowerment point of view, it seems that empowerment is characterized by cognitive processes. We gather information, interpret it and construct knowledge through these processes. In relation to the professional growth of teachers, such mental processes are important since they enable emancipation. Teacher empowerment seeks to define the role of a teacher amidst the tension caused by rigid curricula characterised by the technical understanding of knowledge derived from positivism and the reality of the classroom. Kincheloe’s work suggests that educational theory is often created in contexts that are foreign to the classroom. Therefore, teachers should become the instruments to produce knowledge on their practice. The image comes close to that of a learning organization. The main difference is, perhaps, that of a context and point of view. Kincheloe’s empowered¹⁹ teacher would be trained, motivated/self-regulated, problem-solver, researcher, and a mentor.

Beairsto and Ruohotie (2000) take a similar view of empowerment in relation to teachers as Kincheloe. Kincheloe approached the subject from the angle of teachers as researchers. They discuss the reasons and problems related to teacher empowerment.

They suggest that it is not enough that teachers are equipped with information and pedagogical background. The emphasis in terms of professional competence will shift towards such qualities as: persistence, regulation, motivational control,

19 Of course, he does not list the characteristics as attributes of an empowered teacher. However, they are easily identifiable in his work.

efficacy, curiosity and optimism (2000, 3). Such qualities are crucial to life-long learning. Life-long learning, in turn, becomes an agent of empowerment and crucial part of the empowerment process. Kincheloe (2003) saw inquiry as a path to empowerment. Beairsto and Ruohotie see life-long learning and supporting it as an avenue to empowerment.

Beairsto (2000, 50-56) has taken a deeper look into the qualities of a life-long learner.

He suggests that individuals must learn to adapt, change, endure insecurity, and work in groups/teams. In terms of his or her personality, a lifelong learner is curious, insightful, honest, courageous, and optimistic. A curious person keeps on inquiring and wondering. An insightful person is aware of assumptions that are not stated. By honesty, in this context, Beairsto means a commitment to see things as they really are.

Courage relates to abilities of permitting ambiguity, acknowledging paradox, and initiating change. Finally, optimism is defined as an inclination to anticipate positive outcomes. These characteristics become important when placed into the context of psychological empowerment. By insisting that lifelong learning is a significant part of teachers empowerment process, Beairsto and Beairsto and Ruohotie suggest the listed qualities to characterize an empowered person (specifically, an empowered teacher).

The following figure no. 4, adopted from Beairsto (2000, 56), could be used to paint a partial profile of an empowered person with emphasis on the psychological dimensions.

Figure 4. A profile of an empowered person.

Source: Beairsto 2000.

Beairsto has used in his figure the categories of Personality and Intelligence as the summaries of the sub-categories of affection, conation, and cognition. His categories are drawn from Snow and others (1996). The figure above attempts to bring out the nuance present in their original categorization that affection, conation, and cognition interact in the hierarchically higher categories of personality and intelligence. However, as Ruohotie (2000, 3), has noted, personality could be held to be the summary of all factors that make an individual. Therefore, in the figure here, the higher hierarchies are not mentioned.

Some tinges in the qualities of a lifelong learner are worth pointing out since they are rarely discussed in depth in the empowerment literature. These are curiosity and courage. If reference is made to these factors in the empowerment literature, it is usually by implication. Beairsto has defined courage as an ability to permit ambiguity, acknowledge paradox, and initiate change. Curiosity has been related to the qualities of inquiry and wondering. It might well be that these are some of the qualities that

Knowledge

differentiate a truly empowered person from an average one. Ambiguities and paradoxes can challenge motivation, commitment, and resolve. Could it be that an empowered person is more immune to these factors in terms of his or her professional performance? What about inquiry and wondering? These qualities have been recognized as important qualities in improving business. However, are these not irritating factors to an organizationalist and a manager? Inquiry and wondering shake the status quo. It might take an empowered person to keep on inquiring and wondering amidst increasing regulations and controls imposed on the working environment.

Although agility, innovation and emancipation are the words of the day, the reality seems to be something different (Argyris 1998; Grimmett 2000; Kincheloe 2003; Otala 1996). Finally, Beairsto’s treatise brings out the word change, particularly, the initiation of change. Could it be that an empowered person is not only cognitively and socially skilled, self-regulated, and motivated machine but a human being who can utilize these qualities to bring about change?

Kuokkanen (2003) has studied empowerment in a nursing context. She has suggested an ideal model for individual and environmental factors pertinent to empowerment. She has reviewed studies in the field of nursing that propose psychological empowerment to be made up of such categories as behavioural, verbal, and outcome bound. Behavioural category refers to a sense of control in the working environment. Verbal category refers to the employee’s sense of ability to express and defend his/her views in a working environment. Outcome, in turn, refers to employee’s sense of influence in terms of the outcomes of his/her work. Again, psychological empowerment is strongly linked to self-reflectivity, motivation, self-regulation, goal orientation, and a sense of contextual control. (Kuokkanen 2003, 20-21.)

Kuokkanen has also presented an ideal model for nurse empowerment. In terms of the individual and psychological factors, she has described an ideal nurse from the point of view of personal qualities and performance. The following chart is an adaptation of Kuokkanen’s (2003, 33-43) model with an aim to highlight the personal qualities of an empowered nurse and their manifested performance.

Table 4. Qualities of an empowered nurse and related work performances Source: Kuokkanen 2003, 33-43.

QUALITIES PERFORMANCE

MORAL PRINCIPLES MORAL PRINCIPLES

Respect for individuals Treats others with respect

FUTURE-ORIENTEDNESS FUTURE-ORIENTEDNESS

Innovative, creative Finds creative solutions

Enthusiastic promoter Promotes new ideas at work

Forward thinking Acts after planning, assesses

effects

SOCIABILITY SOCIABILITY

Open minded Discusses openly

Respected by others Works for the common goal

Socially responsible Solves problems

A closer look at the terms comprising the categories in Kuokkanen’s results helps to understand some of the ambiguities involved in them.²⁰ In terms of the moral principles, the empowered nurse demonstrates respect for others. This respect for human dignity does not relate to work contexts only but is a quality that applies to the nurse’s personal life as well. Neither is this quality limited to the care of the patent only, but it is demonstrated in all work related tasks. Personal integrity involves issues of courage, tenacity, and self-esteem. A nurse with these qualities is able to stand criticism, take a stand, and take action. As to expertise, an empowered nurse recognizes him-/herself as an important link in the co-ordinated effort of patient care. He or she is responsible, seeks further training, and is autonomous. An empowered nurse is aware of that he or she can influence work related decisions and has influence over others. He or she is assured enough to submit suggestions for the colleagues to discuss and judge.

Future-orientation in this context has to do with innovation and creativity. An

20 Unless otherwise noted, the description of the contents of Kuokkanen’s categories are derived from Kuokkanen (2003), pp. 33-36)

empowered nurse is not satisfied with immediate outcomes of the work, but he or she is eager to suggest new procedures and ways to look at nursing issues. He or she is able to turn criticism into a constructive experience. Finally, as a socially skilful member of the working community, an empowered nurse creates ambience at the work place by being flexible and active. The social qualities of an empowered nurse also include such issues as willingness to contribute to problem solving, assuming responsibility over others, active responses to others, and working for job development.

In Kuokkanen’s work a few qualities of an empowered nurse strike out in a way that may be crucial for the definition of the term: innovation, social responsibility, creativity, and morality (or moral principles). Innovative aspects of empowerment have also been pointed out by, for example Argyris (1998), Beairsto (2000), and Spreitzer and others (1999). Social issues of empowerment have been explored from the point of view of empowerment context (Adams 1996; Siitonen 1999). In addition, Fetterman and others (1996) devote considerable space to discuss socially concerned communities. However, on an individual level, it seems that empowerment literature merely touches the issues of responsibility and morality (in the sense of moral principles). For Siitonen (1999, 158), ethics is an ingredient of the emotional sub-process. For Kuokkanen, moral principles form one of the five main categories that describe the qualities of an empowered nurse. Social responsibility is a part of the main category of sociability.

Nevertheless, she has discussed social responsibility in relation to an individual’s qualities and not as a quality of a group like Fetterman and others (1996).

Parsons has studied the perceptions of empowerment among clientele in five different empowerment programs. She has used participatory methods to compile a table of empowerment components and dimensions. It seems that on a personal level, the components of empowerment are very similar to what Spreitzer and others, Thomas and Velthouse, and Koberg and others have described above. Intrinsic empowerment has been related to: self-awareness, self-acceptance, belief in self, feeling of having rights, and self-esteem. (Parsons 1998, 213–214.)

To Parsons, an empowered person is self-determined, informed, and respected. He or she is involved with what happens around him or her. An empowered person has some powers to affect decision making and a sense of self-respect. Such a person relates to

the environment with ease. He or she receives information and is able to share it with others. An empowered individual feels that his or her needs are met. (Parsons 1998, 215.)

Parsons has also identified factors that inhibit empowerment. She has listed them as poverty, stigma of mental illness, effects of institutionalization, and lack of power in relationships with professionals and others (1998, 215). She does not discuss the causal relationships between these factors. However, one could easily conclude that they are interrelated and causal relationships can be manifold. Extreme poverty could lead to a sense of lack of power. This in turn could lead to lack of power in relationships, which in turn could result in mental conditions. Or it could be the other way around.

In the field of sociology, psychological empowerment is strongly related to feelings of powerlessness, lack of choice, and influence. Sociological definitions are crucial to the current study since NGO interventions are very often social by nature. In the development cooperation jargon such interventions are often referred to as community interventions. Andrus and Ruhlin (1998, 113–117) have identified three levels of empowerment: personal, interpersonal, and environmental. Personal feeling of powerlessness is built up from the individual’s restricted ability to control time, space, and options. This results in the overall feeling that one cannot influence and solve the problems in one’s own life. Life situations seem uncontrollable. At the lower end of this emotional scale are the feelings of grief and depression.

Fetterman, a sociologist as well, shares a similar view of empowerment with Parsons, Andrus and Ruhlin. Self-regulation and self-determination are at the heart of empowerment when discussed from a sociological point of view. According to Fetterman (2001, 13) self-determination refers to a person’s ability to steer one’s life.

An empowered person is able to solve problems and make decisions. An empowered person acts proactively and demonstrates control in problematic situations. (Fetterman 2001, 12–14.)

Adams (1996) sees such concepts as self-help and user-led activities as coming close to the idea of empowerment. Indeed, he suggests (1996, 1) that in relation to

empowerment it would be better to talk about versions of empowerment rather than a unitary concept. In addition to what has been put forth above, Adams (1996, 6) relates the concept of self-advocacy to empowerment. He understands self-advocacy as a process of where a person represents herself or himself. In relation to handicaps of various kinds, Adam sees empowerment as an engagement in movements that promote the right and need of handicapped persons to maintain independent lives and to manage their own lives. In his discussion on psychological empowerment, he also makes reference to user-led practise. By this he means action where in a regulated context (e.g. a person receiving welfare benefits), a person seeks to influence how the service is being administered.

Siitonen (1999) has suggested that empowerment is in essence an intrinsic quality. In his doctoral dissertation, Siitonen proposes that empowerment is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon. He has pointed out a number of intrinsic factors that contribute to empowerment feelings: intellectual competence, ability beliefs, confidence, self-reflectivity, self-talk, voice, optimism, motivation, risk taking, freedom of action, possibility thinking, and self-awareness (Siitonen 1999, 90).²¹ Although Siitonen has argued that empowerment is primarily an intrinsic phenomenon and power cannot be imparted to another person, he recognizes that, for example, professional/vocational empowerment always exists in a social setting. In other words, intrinsic empowerment manifests and develops in social networks and relationships. In presenting the final conclusions of his dissertation, Siitonen (1999, 157–158) uses four main sub-processes or categories to describe the empowerment process. All of these categories reflect the intrinsic nature of empowerment. Intentions (goals), ability beliefs, context beliefs, and emotions all have strong cognitive and psychological connotations to them. Even if the external context affects the intrinsic feeling of empowerment, it is through the mental assessments that take place in the mind.

21 The factors are deducted from the discussion and the figure on p. 90. They are mentioned as examples of intrinsic empowerment factors and not meant to suggest that they exhaust Siitonen’s theory.