Cultural ecosystem services are nonmaterial ben-efits that humans derive from nature. Their role is becoming increasingly important due to many societal developments, including urbanization and the increase of material welfare. Urban people seek well-being and refreshment from nature, and in-creasing numbers have the means to do so. In some cases the cultural significance alone of a certain ac-tivity related to utilizing provisioning services can outweigh its original purpose. It can be argued that in the cases of hunting, non-professional fishing and berry and mushroom picking, for example, the recreational and health benefits related to the ac-tivity are often more important than the economic value of the game bag, fish catch or berry harvest, respectively.
The six most important cultural services were listed for Finland (Table 3.3.3). Recreation has grown in popularity in Finland during the past decades. According to the Finnish Forest Research Institute nearly all Finns (96%) report taking part in outdoor activities. On average, these are pursued two to three times a week resulting in a total of 170 outdoor recreation events per year. During a ten year period from 2000 to 2010, the proportion of older people (65 to 74 years) in particular engaging in outdoors activities increased. More than half of the population walk, swim and cycle in nature, pick wild berries as well as spend time on the beach and at holiday cottages (Figure 3.3.5 A). The fastest growing forms of outdoor activity include Nordic walking, running, recreational forest management and bird watching. Recreation in nature has been
studied for its effects in enhancing physical and mental health by alleviating stress, fatigue and al-lergies, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and improving physical condition and the ability to focus attention (Hanski et al. 2012, Karjalainen et al. 2010, Korpela et al. 2011).
Besides picking berries and collecting mush-rooms – the two nature-related activities which involve nearly half the population – recreational fishing and hunting are also popular among Finns (Figure 3.3.5 B). On the basis of survey data, the number of people engaging in recreational fishing has been decreasing, but remains, nevertheless, quite high. More than 30% report fishing at least once a year. On the contrary, the number of hunt-ers has been increasing quite steadily for the past decades and amounts to more than 300,000 Finns at the moment.
table 3.3.3. the six most important cultural services in finland and their associated indicators.
1. structure 2. function 3. Benefit 4. value
recreation Preferred natural areas,
accessibility natural events, phenology recreation, experience health (incl. avoided medical costs, economic values (invested time etc.), social values
nature-based
tourism Preferred natural areas,
accessibility natural events, phenology employment, recreation,
experience tourism revenue, employment
nature-relat-ed heritage Cultural heritage in
natural landscapes natural events, phenology Cultural continuity social values, intrinsic value Landscape valuable/preferred
land-scapes natural events, phenology Aesthetic experience social value (identity, aesthet-ics), economic value (marketing value), intrinsic value
Arts and
pop-ular culture emblematic species and
landscapes natural events, phenology Aesthetic experience,
recreation social value (identity, aesthet-ics), economic value (marketing value), intrinsic value
science and
education Areas of particular
interest natural events, phenology source of knowledge social value (knowledge, sustain-ability), intrinsic value, economic value (innovation), health
0 500 000 1 000 000 1 500 000 2 000 000 2 500 000
1980 1990 2000 2010
Recreational fishermen Recreational hunters A) Involvement in outdoor activities B) Recreational fishermen and hunters
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Hunting Picking herbs, flowers etc.
Picking mushrooms Harvesting and chopping firewood Picking wild berries
20102000
figure 3.3.5. involvement of the adult population (15–74 years old) in outdoor activities (A) and number of recreational fishermen and hunters in finland (B). the numbers of fishermen and hunters are based on survey and paid game manage-ment fees, respectively (metla 2000, 2010; rKtL 2014a-b).
The most popular destinations for nature-based tourism in Finland are national parks and Lapland (Tyrväinen & Tuulentie 2007). Statistics collected by Metsähallitus Natural Heritage Services (NHS) show an increase in visits to national parks (Figure 3.3.6). Besides the positive health impacts and the invaluable spiritual experiences, national parks also bring considerable economic benefits to the surrounding area. Studies conducted by Metsähal-litus NHS and the Finnish Forest Research Institute reveal that, on average, one euro spent on the rec-reation infrastructure in a national park returns to the local economy tenfold in the form of increased demand for accommodation and outdoor activity services, for example. The total local economic and employment impacts of visitors’ spending for the 37 national parks of Finland were 110 million euros and 1,412 person years in 2012 (Huhtala et al. 2010).
36 The Finnish Environment 1en | 2015 0
500 000 1 000 000 1 500 000 2 000 000 2 500 000
2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Visits to national parks
figure 3.3.6. total number of visits to the 37 national parks of finland (metsähallitus nhs 2013).
Nature-related heritage is an elemental part of Finnish culture. Practicing natural religion contin-ued alongside Christianity in some parts of Fin-land until the beginning of the 20th century and it is still present in vocabulary, expressions and ex-tensive folklore. There are many sacred places left in Finnish nature such as seita (e.g. unusual rock formations, large rocks or trees), sacrificial stones, lakes (saivá) and springs or other sacred natural areas such as fells and groves. Many of these are conserved by the state.
Landscapes were an important element of devel-oping national identity at the end of the 19th century and these ideas still determine Finland and Finns to some extent. In the 1990s 156 nationally valuable landscapes were identified in Finland (Ministry of the Environment 2014a) and this listing is currently under review (Figure 3.3.7; www.maaseutumaise-mat.fi). Landscapes are considered central to main-taining cultural history, providing aesthetic experi-ences and promoting tourism, for example.
Cultural ecosystem services lie at the heart of Saami culture and identity. Because of the nomadic lifestyle and use of decomposable materials such as wood, little of the cultural heritage of the Saami people exists as durable built structures. Instead, the Saami culture relates strongly to the natural landscape. This is manifested, for example, in the rich terminology and knowledge that relates to nature. Despite the wide dispersal of the Saami people – 60% of the 10,000 Saami living in Finland now live outside their Homeland – cultural ties to the landscapes of northern Lapland remain strong even among those living elsewhere. Practices and traditions related to species, habitats and land-scapes remain a key question for the continuation and development of Saami culture.
Arts had an important role in the development of national identity as well, and landscapes and nature were constantly portrayed in paintings, compositions and poetry at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Nature also nowadays plays a significant role in contemporary visual arts, as demonstrated by many Finnish artists engaging in environmental and land art for example, as well as in popular culture, ranging from schlager songs to reproduced household imagery.
Finns have a long tradition of ecological research and monitoring both in the form of professional academic research as well as amateur interest in species and habitats. One outcome of this is the lat-est Red List of Finnish species 2010 which is among the most inclusive red lists in the world (Rassi et al.
2010). The fields of bioengineering, biochemistry and medicine are built upon this heritage and aim to develop new innovations to support the needs of a healthier and more sustainable society.
Most of the cultural ecosystem services are ab-stract. It is often very difficult or even impossible to draft quantifiable indicators for benefits such as knowledge, cultural continuity or aesthetic ex-perience. On the other hand, concrete indicators of cultural ecosystem services can be developed based on data on visits to recreational areas, the number and location of cultural heritage sites in natural landscapes or employment and revenue derived from nature-based tourism.
figure 3.3.7. 156 nationally valuable landscapes in finland (ministry of the environment 2014a).
3.3.4