UNDERLYING THE NEED FOR DA‘WA
As has been argued in Chapter 1, neither the Quran nor Sunna explicitly calls for da‘wa on the part of all Muslims – da‘wa was never officially proclaimed by Muhammad (or God) as an obligation or duty for Muslims, like the arkan al-din (نﺎﻛرأ ﻦﯾﺪﻟا). Muslim activists and da‘wa advocates nonetheless make every effort to convince fellow-believers that it is indeed an obligation. Some da‘wa activists, like Mustafa Mashhour, base their argument on the legal traditions and their elaborations, thus insisting that
it is well known that Islamic Law has made it our responsibility to invite others to Allah, and to permit the good and forbid the wrong. Everyone of us will be questioned by Allah as to whether he actually did invite his family, neighbors, friends and acquaintances to Allah, to adopt the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah.…As for inviting people to Islam, a Muslim will be rewarded for it, and will be penalized for negligence in this respect. (Mashhour, 1999: 56–57)
On another occasion, speaking about the importance of da‘wa in today’s setting, he says, “Da'wah to Allah is a duty on every Muslim in every age, and in our time this Da'wah is particularly important in light of the vicious attacks the enemies of Allah are waging to remove the importance of Da'wah from the hearts of Muslims”
(Mashhour). A convert to Islam Abdal Hakim Murad passionately laments that
Islam is in its theology and its historical practice a missionary faith - one of the great missionary faiths, along with Christianity and Buddhism. And yet while Christianity and Buddhism are today brilliantly organised for conversion, Islam has no such operation, at least to my knowledge, (Convey my message, even though a single verse) is a Prophetic commandment that binds us all. It is a fard ayn, and a fard kifaya - and we are disobeying it on both counts. (Murad, A.)
Ezzati is altogether categorical when he claims that
Islam regards the preaching of Truth (Da'wah ila al-Haqq) as the responsibility of the entire Muslim community. It is a communal and social responsibility of the entire Muslim community. It is a communal and social responsibility and thus not a purely professional duty of the Ulama. The leadership in Islam derives its authority from the doctrine of Da'wah and is not the other way round. (Ezzati)
For another da‘wa theoretician, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, da‘wa is fard kifaya if in a given territory a sufficient number of da‘is operate (‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 1989: 20).
However, in today’s environment, when there are but a few da‘is and “reprehensible actions (تاﺮﻜﻨﻣ) in abundance and ignorance (ﻞﮭﺟ) prevail, da‘wa has become fard
‘ayn” (‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 1989: 21).
The insistence that all Muslims, especially the ‘ulama and da‘wa professionals, should perform da‘wa, does not, however, imply that da‘wa efforts of every Muslim are of the same value. As Rushdi Ahmad Ta‘ima and ‘Abd al-Rahman Salih ‘Abd Allah, both professors at the Department of Islamic Education and Sciences of the Sultan Qabus University, Oman, argue, “da‘wa to God is an obligation on every Muslim, male and female, in the limits of one’s knowledge” (Ta‘ima, 1998:
116). The “limits of knowledge” is the theoretical ceiling that determines what level of da‘wa an individual Muslim can attain. Knowledge here is understood as expertise in matters of belief and religious practice: the less the knowledge, the more limited the scope of da‘wa activities. The bottom line, conversely, is knowing by heart some Quranic lines, the sharing of which does not require any special training. ‘Abd
al-‘Aziz, however, cautions that one of the biggest mistakes the young da‘is make is a straightforward, literal application the religious texts – the da‘i instead needs to get a deeper grip of the ideas contained in those texts. And it is the ‘ulama who can assist here. They can explain the true meanings of the texts (‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 1989: 229).
Abu ‘Abdil Kareem, basing his argument on the Quranic passages 16:125, 3:104, 41:33, and 12:108, insists that da‘wa, at least on a basic level, should be performed by all Muslims and notes that “conveying the message (a verse of the Quran – my note) therefore does not require a high level of scholarship, it is in fact a responsibility of each and every Muslim, according to his or her ability” (Kareem (b)).
Moreover, according to Abu ‘Abdil Kareem, not to spread the message of the Quran is a sin: “Hiding knowledge – is disobedience to Allah that causes Allah’s curse to descend upon such people, which shows that such a sin leads to the Hellfire” (Kareem (b)). Similarly, Mohammad Sami Ullah reasons that
there is no denying the fact that the responsibilities of a person vary with his mental attainments as well as with his station in life or society. Viewed from this angle, even in the matter of tabligh (missionary work), the duties of the Ulema (the learned) in religion are certainly heavier and more onerous. But we must not forget that tabligh is the duty of all Muslims and not merely of a group or class among them. The difference, if any, is one of degree only; while the responsibility is common by all means. Thus tabligh is the universal duty of all Muslims and aims at bringing home to all humanity, irrespective of caste or creed, her relations with the common Creator, viz. Allah. (Sami Ullah)
Sami Ullah not only authorizes da‘wa (called by him tabligh) activities for lay untrained Muslims, he even globalizes the whole issue of da‘wa by asserting that
it is our duty as Muslims to undertake tabligh (missionary work), to spread Islam in all the four corners of the world. It will be no exaggeration to say that tablighi activities are the barometer of our own convictions. The more we are imbued with the spirit of truth and love for Allah and His creation, the greater will be the urge to bear witness of Him and His revelation, the more enthusiastic we will be to spread His teachings and thus help our ignorant or misled brothers and sisters, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. (Sami Ullah)
Sami Ullah’s maxim, then, is “at all times, in all places.” Other authors reiterate this opinion: A “da‘i is obliged to call to God all the time, in all cases and circum-stances.”47
Ezzati complements both Abu ‘Abdil Kareem and Sami Ullah: “It is not enough for the Muslims to come to the truth. They are expected to lead others to the Truth, too. Truth is not the monopoly of certain sections of humanity” (Ezzati). The underlying idea in Ezzati’s reasoning, who can be said to speak for all da‘is, is that the Islamic da‘wa is an invitation to the “Truth,” which is conceived of as universal.
Most contemporary Muslim activists are trapped in a “one-truth” theory that excludes alternative truths. Moreover, Muslim campaigners are prone to believe that it is natural that people should seek after this, their “Truth.” Thus, every Muslim should first seek it for him/herself and then convey it to others or help others come to it.
Contemporary Muslim activists have effectively removed the responsibility of da‘wa from the shoulders of the learned men of the Ummah, the ‘ulama and professional da‘is, and delegated it across the commoners. In today’s setting, da‘wa is a way of living, and to be a da‘i implies to live as a da‘i, and to live a da‘i is to lead a devout Muslim’s way of life. Moreover, in the opinion of many Muslim activists, it is an obligation of every Muslim to be a da‘i in the sense that the mere leading of an Islamic way of life constitutes da‘wa – the notion, which Poston very fittingly termed
“lifestyle evangelism.” In words of Murad, “Da‘wah in Islam...is not a profession. It is not a subsidiary occupation that one may or may not engage” (Murad, 1986: 11). And further, “Every Muslim is a Da‘iya. Da‘wah cannot be given up or be a part-time occupation; it must become the life he lives” (Murad, 1986: 13). Khurshid fully supports his fellow believer: “Every Muslim is responsible for the da‘wah whatever be his vocation in life” (Ahmad, 1982: 44). Tabibi, an ardent Muslim activist, pushes this position to an extreme: “A Muslim is a Da‘i all his life and must propagate Islam no matter how limited or extensive his knowledge is of the Quran or Sunnah” (Tabibi,
47 Anonymous leaflet in Arabic, circulated at a mosque in Budapest.
1984 (?): iv). Tabibi’s insistence that every, even an uneducated, Muslim must engage in da‘wa is quite alarming, for this implies that there should be no formal requirement either for da‘i or da‘wa itself. Thus, da‘wa becomes whatever one puts into it.
The above-quoted ideas of contemporary Muslim campaigners take liberties with the Quran. As was argued in Chapter 1 on the concept of da‘wa in the Quran, the holy book of Muslims nowhere directly commands that common (non-educated and non-professional) Muslims be da‘is. Though the Quran speaks of spreading the Islamic faith to nonbelievers, it does not say explicitly that this must be done by every Muslim. On the other hand, the Quran nowhere prohibits any group or individual from da‘wa. In verse 3:104, the Quran speaks of a group (ﺔﻣأ) of people who are to “invite to goodness, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong,” which could, among other things, imply a category of learned professionals.48 Intra-ummaic da‘wa in the history of Islam was practiced mainly by semi-professionals, or at least by the educated. As will be shown below, to be a Fatimid da‘i, for example, one had to be well educated in such diverse fields as theology, jurisprudence, geography, physics, astronomy, and language sciences. In other words, to become a proper da‘i one had to earn the title and position. On the other hand, in the extra-ummaic da‘wa, the exemplary life of ordinary Muslims who did not perceive themselves as missionaries might have had the same effect as the professional missionary efforts (not to mention the impact of Muslim sages and wandering Sufis).
The contemporary Muslim propagandists are preceded by Arnold in the notion that da‘wa should be and was practiced by Muhammad’s followers even in his lifetime. Arnold, although himself not a Muslim, enthusiastically argues that “the duty of missionary work is no after-thought in the history of Islam, but was enjoined on believers from the beginning” (Arnold: 3). He supports this argument of his by a story of the first Yathribi converts to Islam, who became champions of the cause of Muhammad in their native city: “These twelve men now returned to Yathrib as missionaries of Islam, and so well was prepared the ground, and with such zeal did they prosecute their mission, that the new faith spread rapidly from house to house and from tribe to tribe” (Arnold: 22). However, since Arnold finds this story in Ibn Ishaq’s biography of Muhammad, the optimism of both Ibn Ishaq and Arnold should be treated with caution – as in other similar cases regarding early Islamic history, we have no means to either verify or falsify this account. Notwithstanding the dubious nature of the story, Muslims can always refer to it as an example that Muslims had
48 Refer to footnote 23 on page 39 for other possible meanings of the word ﺔﻣأ in the verse.
been charged with the duty of missionary activity as early as Muhammad’s lifetime – he either himself instructed them to undertake the task or at least approved of it. Thus, the first argument in favor of da‘wa is the perceived prescription (direct or not) by God and his messenger Muhammad for Muslims to invite people to Islam.
Muhammad, moreover, constituted a living example of da‘i, to be emulated by all Muslims.
The Quranic passage, “God invites to the abode of peace and he guides those whom he wishes to the Straight Path” (10:25), is often invoked by da‘wa activists to encourage the da’is. They argue that it is not people alone, who invite to Islam, but God himself through da‘is and by other means invites people to his chosen religion for humankind, Islam (al-Qutan & Muhalhal, 1992: 6). The responsibility of carrying out da‘wa is thus elevated to a sacred duty: Those who invite to Islam become God’s helpers (awliya, Arabic ءﺎﯿﻟوأ). Furthermore, the hadith declaration, “If through you a man is guided by God on the right path, it would be better for you than red camels”
(al-Bukhari, 1981, II, 3: 207), also supports the notion that missionary work is considered a welcome deed by the God.
Doubtlessly most Muslims believe that non-Muslims are in the need of da‘wa – it is da‘wa through which they can perceive the truthfulness of Islam and eventually attain salvation by converting to it and observing its precepts. But are the Muslims in need of it? Isma‘il al-Faruqi’s answer is straightforward: Da‘wa “is as much intended for the benefit of Muslims as non-Muslims” (al-Faruqi, 1982: 35; see also Altalib, 1993: 10). He insists that “da‘wah is necessarily addressed to both, to the Muslim to press forward toward actualization and to the non-Muslim to join the ranks of those who make the pursuit of God’s pattern supreme” (al-Faruqi, 1982: 35). Al-Faruqi speaks about the actualization, through da‘wa, of one’s Islamicity. As Poston observes, al-Faruqi implies “that distinctions may be made between Muslims on a scale of ‘Islamicity’ and that one aspect of da‘wah is the extension of an ‘invitation’
to Muslims to attain the ‘higher’ end of the scale” (Poston, 1992: 6). Poston, however, finds this implication to lead to a pitfall, for “it fails to specify the authority that is to determine the standards by which Islamicity is to be measured and the aspects that characterize the ‘higher’ reaches of the scale” (Poston, 1992: 6). This observation is very much to the point: Islam lacks any formal authority that could gradate levels on the scale of Islamicity. Therefore, “for Muslims to engage in da‘wah among other Muslims implies that those doing the calling believe that they have progressed further along the scale than those who are being called, and in extreme cases, Muslims are
invited to actually convert to Islam (or at least to some particular form of the faith)”
(Poston, 1992: 6). While in the case of the extra-ummaic da‘wa the issue of level on the scale of Islamicity is not pertinent, intra-ummah it is the single criterion for judging others in religious and, by extension, political affairs. An arbitrarily configured scale of Islamicity is imposed onto the others and those who fall short become the targets of the intra-ummaic da‘wa.
Use of term “da‘wa” for the intra-ummaic activities raises the question of whether da‘wa toward fellow Muslims is not a contradiction in terms. Indeed, there are such terms as “ihya” (Arabic ءﺎﯿﺣإ), “tajdid” (Arabic ﺪﯾﺪﺠﺗ), and “tabligh” that have been used to denote activities by Muslims toward fellow Muslims in guiding them back to a truer religious life, to revive their Islamicity. Apparently, as found in the texts both in English and Arabic, the concept of “da‘wa” for many Muslim activists has been expanded to include very different notions and activities, which at times might even contradict each other. They use it indiscriminately. So, for example, for some, the leading of an Islamic way of life in correspondence to verse 3:104 constitutes a sort of intra-ummaic da‘wa: “Da‘wah should also be directed toward the Muslims. It is called as indirect da‘wah or Islamic lifestyle (al-Da‘wah bi al-Hal)”
(Nasir, 2000: 500). A Muslim activist tries to reconcile the tension between the concepts of extra- and intra-ummaic da‘wa by stating that:
Our da‘wa therefore is necessarily two-fold. One is urging Ummatul-Ijaabah (those who have answered the call to Islam, i.e. Muslims) to learn, and adhere to the religion of Allah that their forefathers (as-salaf) practiced and through which, by the grace of Allah, they attained leadership and ascendancy and happiness in the world and more importantly attained the pleasure of Allah. Two is calling those who have not yet answered the call (Ummatud-Da‘wah) to the very same religion no matter what their position in life may be because the attainment of Allah’s pleasure and reward far outweighs any other consideration. (Editor’s Word)
The urgency for and need of da‘wa is justified by Muslim propagandists through its multiple purposes, which extend from personal spiritual development to ethical, moral, legal, and political communal obligations, to universal mission. The purpose of da‘wa is succinctly summarized by Jama‘a Amin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz.
According to him, da‘wa’s purpose is threefold: 1) to create an Islamic society (ﻲﻣﻼﺳإ ﻊﻤﺘﺠﻣ ﺲﯿﺳﺄﺗ), 2) to correct Muslim societies (ﺔﻤﻠﺴﻤﻟا تﺎﻌﻤﺘﺠﻤﻟا ﻲﻓ حﻼﺻﻹا ةﻮﻋد ), 3) to safeguard the existing Islamic societies ( ﻖﺤﻟﺎﺑ ﺔﻤﺋﺎﻘﻟا تﺎﻌﻤﺘ ﺠﻤﻟا ﻲﻓ ةﻮﻋﺪﻟاراﺮﻤﺘﺳإ) (‘Abd
al-‘Aziz, 1989: 16). Though all three phases apply to intra-ummaic da‘wa, the first one also applies to extra-ummaic da‘wa. The first two purposes can be said to refer to historical reality, while the third one refers to an ideal to be attained in the future, for
virtually no Muslim scholar or activist finds a true Islamic society in existence yet.
Anyhow, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz foresees a future for da‘wa even in a truly Islamic society.
The need for da‘wa and its being a personal obligation of every Muslim are the fundamental initial arguments of most da‘wa advocates. Muslim activists spare no effort in convincing fellow Muslims of the virtue of da‘wa and do not fail to note that there is reward for it in the hereafter, while negligence of it would cause punishment or reprimand by God. Once the need for da‘wa is established, da‘wa theoreticians proceed to the personality of a da‘i.
QUALITIES AND CHARACTER OF DA‘IS
To be a Muslim does not necessarily mean “to have faith,” for as Mutahhari argues, to be a Muslim means to submit oneself, something which can be done without a real belief in Islamic tenets (Mutahhari, 1986: 109–110. c.f. Griffel’s note on distinction between “Muslim” and “believer” above) Determination and belief are seen by Muslim activists to be the foundations for successful da‘wa: “This strong belief in which there is no doubt is a must for the carrier of dawah” (Requirements). For da‘wa proponents, then, any doubt as to one’s own conviction of the ultimate truth-ness of the Islamic faith and its precepts invalidates da‘wa – da‘wa is not a searching for the
“Truth”; it is spreading of the known “Truth”. The one who believes to possess the knowledge of the true essence of Islam and who then embarks upon da‘wa has to be of a certain moral caliber. Salman al-Awdah, when speaking of the “moral character of da‘i,” rhetorically asks, “if embellishing oneself with moral excellence is
“Truth”; it is spreading of the known “Truth”. The one who believes to possess the knowledge of the true essence of Islam and who then embarks upon da‘wa has to be of a certain moral caliber. Salman al-Awdah, when speaking of the “moral character of da‘i,” rhetorically asks, “if embellishing oneself with moral excellence is