In Bangladesh, securing clean and equal energy access for all is often constrained by lack of understanding of households’ energy dependency and influencing factors. The major share of biomass energy, used primarily for cooking and heating at the household level, can be utilized in an efficient way to secure clean and equal energy access by reducing CO2 emissions from the combustion of biomass fuels. However, organized baseline data on energy resources, CO2 emissions from various energy sources, and relevant socioeconomic factors are lacking in the rural and suburban area. In this context, our research findings offer policy makers an insight into rural energy use patterns and enable them to develop tailored energy initiatives. This study explores and describes household-level energy consumption and expenditure of biomass and non-renewables and their comparisons, relevant socioeconomic factors and CO2 emissions from various energy sources.
Although this study has some drawbacks, including the overestimation of consumption and expenditure of energy fuels specifically for biomass by some households, it provides approximate findings verified by the researchers and local guides. In our study, most of the households heavily
27
depended on biomass energy, with the major fuels including firewood and leaves and twigs used mainly for cooking, and these were sourced mainly from their homesteads. About 24% of the poor who depended on public forests for biomass collection, 87% of them lived nearby the forests.
Regardless of the income groups, biomass energy accounted for households’ 87% of their monthly energy consumption and about two-thirds of energy expenditure and 10% expenses of total income.
Conversely, dependence on non-renewable energy was minimal and accounted for households’ 31%
monthly energy expenditure and 4% expenses of total income. The rich households tended to rely more on electricity, candle, LPG and their consumption of the non-renewables was significantly higher than that of medium-income and poor households. Both non-consumers and consumers of grid electricity, due to uneven rural electrification networks and power disruptions, mainly used kerosene and candles for lighting. The medium-income and poor households had to spend significantly more of their income on kerosene. Income, education, and landholdings of households are positively correlated with expenditure for consuming convenient energy sources such as firewood, electricity and LPG. However, firewood as a cooking fuel was an energy source with the highest carbon emissions (192 kg CO2 e household-1 month-1).Regardless of the income groups, the households’ consumption of biomass was 555% higher compared to that of non-renewables. Hossen et al. (2017) also stated that efficient use of only one-third of the overall biomass available would meet the total energy demand in Bangladesh, thereby avoiding the use of fossil fuels.
The Renewable Energy Policy 2008 of Bangladesh aims to harness the potential and dissemination of renewable energy resources and their technologies, for example, biomass gasification and clean energy promotion for CDM, while substituting the non-renewable energy resources (GOB PD, 2011). Our results can relate the renewable energy policy; as such, the biomass consumption of 1087.79 kWh could be alternatively used by the installation of biomass-based small-scale power plants and gasification systems at the village level to produce electricity and heat to fulfil the local demand of energy. This clean energy use would result in less carbon emissions
28
compared to the direct combustion of biomass, and simultaneously would reduce the dependency on the non-renewable fossil fuels through substitution. Cooking fuel conversion efficiency is very low (Mainali et al., 2014), which led to the overuse of biomass collected from homestead forests. Under the CDM activities, introducing improved cooking stoves (ICS) to rural households can substitute natural gas and LPG for cooking, and can concurrently reduce overdependence on the homestead and public forests, thereby preventing overexploitation (Miah et al., 2009, 2011b; Nath et al., 2013).
The initiation of CDM forestry programs in homesteads and cropland agroforestry systems could ensure the sustainable supply of biomass while maintaining environmental sustainability and offering an alternative livelihood option for poor households through carbon trading (Miah et al., 2011b). Homestead agroforestry is believed to have a higher potential to sequester carbon than pastures or field crops and, consequently, to add higher carbon credits (Nair et al., 2009; Nath et al., 2014). Uddin and Taplin (2009) also found CDM being potential in sustainable energy projects in Bangladesh. However, lack of an assigned government body for promoting biomass energy may hinder the CDM forestry project, which also needs coordination between local land users and different government organizations, such as forest department and energy department. The opportunity costs of agriculture and homestead production may influence the decision of CDM project for biomass production and carbon sequestration (Smith, 2002).
In our research, we did not study the use of ICS and feasibility of biomass-based technologies under the sustainable energy projects. Therefore, policy supports, together with research and design (R&D) on the feasibility of biomass-based technologies and accessibility to ICS at the village level are essential prior to the widespread adaptation of such technologies. The GOB should invite local land users, research institutions, and international donor agencies/NGOs to work together with concerned government organizations on technological development and biomass-based energy to secure clean and equal energy access for all. Additionally, augmenting the income of the rural households through alternative livelihoods, such as carbon trading, while increasing the education
29
level, should be taken into account in the renewable energy policy. Thus, the poor households residing nearby forest areas will no longer move to public forests for the collection of fuels, preventing further environmental degradation. These kinds of study findings could be applicable for other countries with similar socioeconomic and energy dependence condition.
Acknowledgement: The authors are highly thankful to the respondents of the study area for their valuable time and support during data collection. The editors and anonymous reviewers are also appreciated for their efforts.
Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
References
Ahmed, F., Amin, A.Q.A., Hasanuzzaman, M., Saidur, R., 2013. Alternative energy resources in Bangladesh and future prospect. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 25, 698–707. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.008
Ahmed, S., Islam, M.T., Karim, M.A., Karim, M.N., 2014. Exploitation of renewable energy for sustainable development and overcoming power crisis in Bangladesh. Renew. Energy 72, 223–235.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2014.07.003
Ahiduzzaman, M., Islam A.K.M.S., 2011. Greenhouse gas emission and renewable energy sources for sustainable development in Bangladesh. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 4659–4666. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.086 Akther, S., Miah, M.D., Koike, M., 2010a. Domestic use of biomass fuel in the rural Meghna floodplain areas of
Bangladesh. iForest 3, 144–149. doi:10.3832/ifor0551-003
Akther, S., Miah, M.D., Koike, M., 2010b. Household adaptations to fuelwood shortage in the old Brahmaputra downstream zone in Bangladesh and implications for homestead forest management. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci.
Ecosyst. Serv. Manag. 6, 139–145. doi:10.1080/21513732.2010.538720.
Akther, S., Miah, M.D., Koike, M., 2010c. Driving forces for fuelwood choice of households in developing countries : environmental implications for Bangladesh. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag. 6, 35–42.
30
doi:10.1080/21513732.2010.505011.
Amin, S.B., Islam, S.L., Kamal, T.Z., Mithila, N.N., 2016. Prospects and Constraints of Renewable Energy Sector in Bangladesh : An Analytical Exercise. World Journal of Social Sciences 6(2), 1–12
Asaduzzaman, M., Barnes, D.F., Khandker, S.R., 2010. Restoring Balance: Bangladesh’s rural Energy realities. World Bank Working Paper No. 181, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. October. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7897-7 Asaduzzaman, M., Latif, A., 2005. Energy for Rural Households: Towards rural energy strategies in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka.
Balat, M., 2009. Global status of biomass energy use. Energy sources, Part A: Recovery, utilization, and environmental effects. 31, 1160–1173.
Banglapedia. 〈http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?Title=Hathazari_Upazila〉 (accessed 28 August 2016).
Barnes, D.F., Khandker, S.R., Samad, H.A., 2011. Energy poverty in rural Bangladesh. Energy Policy 39, 894–904.
doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.014
Baul, T.K., Rahman, M.M., Moniruzzaman, M., Nandi., R. 2015. Status, utilization, and conservation of
agrobiodiversity in farms: a case study in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst.
Serv. Manag. doi: 10.1080/21513732.2015.1050456
BBS, 2014. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). Statistical Pocketbook of Bangladesh 2013. Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
BBS, 2013. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). 2012 Statistical yearbook of Bangladesh. Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
BBS, 2010. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). Statistical yearbook of Bangladesh 2009. Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
Behera, B., Rahut, D.B., Jeetendra, A., Ali, A., 2015. Household collection and use of biomass energy sources in South Asia. Energy 85, 468–480
BFD, 2016. (Bangladesh Forest Department). 〈http://www.bforest.gov.bd/〉 (accessed 28 October 2016).
Bhatt, B.P., Sachan, M.S., 2004. Firewood consumption pattern of 9 different tribal communities in northeast India.
Energy Policy 32, 1–6.
Bhattacharya, S.C., Abdul Salam, P., Sharma, M., 2000. Emissions from biomass energy use in some selected Asian countries. Energy 25, 169–188. doi:10.1016/S0360-5442(99)00065-1
Biswas, W.K., Lucas, N.J.D., 1997. Energy consumption in the domestic sector in a Bangladesh village. Energy 22, 771-776.
31
Biswas, M.M., Das, K.K., Baqee, I.A., Sadi, M.A.H., Farhad, H.M.S., 2011. Prospects of renewable energy and energy storage systems in Bangladesh and developing economics. J. Electr. Eng. 11, p. 7.
BP, 2013. (British Petroleum). BP Statistical Review of World Energy, British:
BPPlc.〈 http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statisticalreview-of-world-energy-2013.html〉 (accessed 30 October 2016).
BPC (Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation), 2015. Imported petroleum products.
BPDB (Bangladesh Power Development Board), 2015. Annual report 2014-2015. Bangladesh Power Development Board, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
FAO, 2009 (Food and Agriculture Organization) State of the World's Forests 2009 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 145.
Foysal, M.A., Hossain, M.L., Rubaiyat, A., Sultana, S., Uddin, M.K., Sayem, M.M., Akhter, J., 2012. Household energy consumption pattern in rural areas of Bangladesh. Indian J. Eng. 1 (5), 72–85.
GOB PD, 2011. (Government of Bangladesh-Power Division). Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources, Renewable energy in Bangladesh. 〈http://www.powerdivision.gov.bd/user/brec/49/90〉 (accessed 26 October 2016).
Guta, D.D., 2012. Assessment of biomass fuel resource potential and utilization in Ethiopia : Sourcing strategies for renewable energies. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 2, 132–139.
Halder, P.K., Paul, N., Beg, M.R.A., 2014. Assessment of biomass energy resources and related technologies practice in Bangladesh. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 39, 444–460. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.071
Hassan, K., Halder, P., Pelkonen, P., Pappinen, A., 2013. Rural households' preferences and attitudes towards biomass fuels - results from a comprehensive field survey in Bangladesh. Energy, Sustain. Soc. 3, 1–14.
Hassan, K., Pelkonen, P., Halder, P., Pappinen, A., 2012. An analysis of cross-sectional variation in energy
consumption pattern at the household level in disregarded rural Bangladesh. J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res. 2(4), 3949–
3963.
Hassan, K., Pelkonen, P., Pappinen, A., 2014. Rural households’ knowledge and perceptions of renewables with special attention on bioenergy resources development – Results from a field study in Bangladesh. Appl. Energy 136, 454–464. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.049
Hathazari Forest Beat, 2014. Chittagong Forest Division, Chittagong, Bangladesh Forest Department, Bangladesh.
Heltberg, R., 2005. Factors determining household fuel choice in Guatemala. Environ Dev Econ. 10, 337–61.
32
Hiloidhari, M., Das, D., Baruah, D.C., 2014. Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in India. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 32, 504–512. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.025
Hossain, M.M.G., 2003. Improved cookstove and biogas programmes in Bangladesh. Energy Sustain. Dev. 7, 97–100.
doi:10.1016/S0973-0826(08)60359-2
Hossen, M.M., Rahman, A.H.M.S., Kabir, A.S., Hasan, M.M.F., Ahmed, S., 2017. Systematic assessment of the availability and utilization potential of biomass in Bangladesh. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 67, 94–105.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.008
Huda, A.S.N., Mekhilef, S., Ahsan, A., 2014. Biomass energy in Bangladesh : Current status and prospects. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 30, 504–517. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.10.028 IEA, 2010a. (International Energy Agency). Oil Information, 2010:
Paris.URL:〈http://wds.iea.org/wds/pdf/documentation_oil_2010.pdf〉 (accessed 28 August 2016).
IEA, 2010b. (International Energy Agency). Key World Energy Statistics, 2010:
Paris.URL:〈http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf〉 (accessed 28 August 2016).
IEA, 2017. (International Energy Agency). Key world energy statistics.
〈https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2017.pdf〉 (accessed 12 November2017).
Islam, M.N., 1980. Study of the problems and prospects of biogas technology as a mechanism for rural development study in a pilot area of Bangladesh. Chemical Engineering Department, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka.
Islam, A., Chan, E.S., Taufiq-Yap, Y.H., Mondal, M.A.H., Moniruzzaman, M., Mridha, M., 2014b. Energy security in Bangladesh perspective - an assessment and implication. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32, 154–171.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.021
Islam, A.K.M.S., Islam, M., Rahman, T., 2006. Effective renewable energy activities in Bangladesh. Renew. Energy 31, 677–688. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2005.08.004
Islam, K.K., Sato, N., 2012. Deforestation, land conversion and illegal logging in Bangladesh: The case of the Sal (Shorea robusta) forests. iForest 5, 171–178. doi:10.3832/ifor0578-005
Islam, M.T., Shahir, S.A., Uddin, T.M.I., Saifullah, A.Z.A., 2014a. Current energy scenario and future prospect of renewable energy in Bangladesh. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 39, 1074–1088. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.149 Jashimuddin, M., Masum, K.M., Salam, M.A., 2006. Preference and consumption pattern of biomass fuel in some
disregarded villages of Bangladesh. Biomass-. Bioenergy 30, 446–451. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.11.023
33
Jumbe, C.B.L., Angelsen, A., 2011. Modeling choice of fuelwood source among rural households in Malawi: A multinomial probit analysis. Energy Econ. 33, 732–738.
Kurschner, E., Diehl, E., Hermann-Friede, J., Hornikel, C., Rosenbusch, J., and Sagmeister, E., 2009. Impacts of basic rural energy services in Bangladesh: An assessment of solar home system and improved cook stove interventions.
SLE Publication Series S238, SLE-BERLIN, Dhaka/Berlin, ISBN 3-936602-42-5, pp. 125
Mainali, B., Pachauri, S., Rao, N.D., Silveira, S., 2014. Assessing rural energy sustainability in developing countries.
Energy Sustain. Dev. 19, 15–28. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2014.01.008
Miah, M.D., Foysal M.A., Koike, M., Kobayashi, H., 2011a. Domestic energy-use pattern by the households : a comparison between rural and semi-urban areas of Noakhali in Bangladesh. Energy Policy 39, 3757–3765.
doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.04.004 Biomass-. Bioenergy
Miah, M.D., Ahmed, R., Uddin, M.B., 2003. Biomass fuel use by the rural households in Chittagong region, Bangladesh. Biomass-. Bioenergy 24, 277–283.
Miah, M.D., Rashid, H.Al., Shin M.Y., 2009. Wood fuel use in the traditional cooking stoves in the rural floodplain areas of Bangladesh : A socio-environmental perspective. Biomass-. Bioenergy 33, 70–78.
doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2008.04.015
Miah, M.D., Kabir,R.R.M.S., Koike, M., Akther, S., Shin M.Y., 2010. Rural household energy consumption pattern in the disregarded villages of Bangladesh. Energy Policy 38, 997–1003. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.10.051
Miah, M.D., Koike, M., Shin, M.Y., Akther, S., 2011b. Forest biomass and bioenergy production and the role of CDM in Bangladesh. New For. 42, 63–84. doi:10.1007/s11056-010-9238-4
Mondal, A.H., Denich, M., 2010. Assessment of renewable energy resources potential for electricity generation in Bangladesh. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 2401–2413. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.05.006
Nath, T.K., Baul, T.K., Rahman, M.M., Islam, M.T., Harun-or-Rashid, M., 2013. Traditional biomass fuel consumption by rural households in degraded SAL (Shorea robusta) forest areas of Bangladesh. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Adv.
Eng. 3(3), 537–544.
Nath, T.K., Aziz, N., Inoue, M., 2014. Contribution of homestead forests to rural economy and climate change
mitigation: a study from the ecologically critical area of Cox’s Bazar –Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh. Small scale For. doi:10.1007/s11842-014-9270-x.
Nair, P.K.R., Kumar, B.M., Nair, V.D., 2009. Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 172, 10–23. doi:10.1002/jpln.200800030
Narayan, D., 1996. Toward Participatory Research. World Bank Technical Paper 307, The World Bank, Washington,
34
D.C.
Ouedraogo, B., 2006. Household energy preferences for cooking in urban Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Energy Policy 34, 3787–3795. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2005.09.006
Pachauri, S., 2004. An analysis of cross-sectional variations in total household energy requirements in India using micro survey data. Energy Policy 32, 1723–1735. doi:10.1016/S0301-4215(03)00162-9
Power System Master Plan, 2016. Power Division, Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
Rahman, M.S., Saha, S.K., Khan, M.R.H., Habiba, U., Chowdhury, S.M.H., 2013. Present Situation of Renewable Energy in Bangladesh: Renewable Energy Resources Existing in Bangladesh. GJRE-FElectrical Electron Eng.
13(5).http://journalofelectronics.com/index.php/GJRE/article/view/92
Rahut, D.B., Das, S., Groote, H.D., Behera, B., 2014. Determinants of household energy use in Bhutan. Energy 69, 661–672.
Rahut, D.B., Mottaleb, K.A., Ali, A., Aryal J.P., 2017. Energy consumption transition through the use of electricity for lighting and cooking: evidence from Bhutan. Renewable Energy Focus 18,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2017.03.001
Rao, M.N., Reddy, B.S., 2007.Variations in energy use by Indian households:an analysis of micro level data. Energy 32(2), 143–153.
Rea, L.M., Parker, R.A., 1997. Designing and conducting survey research: a comprehensive guide. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Fransisco, USA, pp. 27–62, 114–143.
Reddy, B.S., Srinivas, T., 2009. Energy use in Indian household sector - An actor-oriented approach. Energy 34, 992–
1002. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.01.004
REN21, 2016. Renewables 2016 Global status report. 〈http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2016.pdf〉.(accessed 28 October 2016).
Roy, B., Rahman, M.H., Fardusi, Most.J., 2013. Status, diversity, and traditional uses of homestead gardens in Northern Bangladesh: A means of sustainable biodiversity conservation. ISRN Biodiversity
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/124103
Smith, K.R., 2002. Indoor air pollution in developing countries: recommendations for research. Indoor Air 12, 198–207 Uddin, Sk.N., Taplin, R., 2009. Trends in renewable energy strategy development and the role of CDM in Bangladesh
37, 281–289. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.026
Union Council Office, 2014. Mirzapur, Fatehpur, and Hathazari Unions, Hathazari Upazila, Chittagong District,
35
Bangladesh.
Upazila Parishad Office, 2014. Hathazari Upazila, Chittagong District, Bangladesh.
Van Ruijven, B., Urban, F., Benders, R.M.J., Moll, H.C., Van der Sluijs, J.P., De Vries, B., VanVuuren, D.P., 2008.
Modeling energy and development: an evaluation of models and concepts. World Development 36, 2801–2821 World Bank, 2013. Bangladesh poverty assessment: Assessing a decade of progress in reducing poverty, 2000–2010.
Bangladesh Development Series, Paper No. 31, The World Bank Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
World Bank, 2014. 〈http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.PCAP.KG.OE?Locations=BD〉 (accessed 28 October 2016).