Concepts

This section presents and clarifies the varying terms related to the concept information sharing. Information sharing, communication, knowledge transfer, and data exchange – they all have a similar meaning as the concepts refer to the informational interaction between two or more participants. The conceptual field is far more complex, when taking into account the research tradition and the theoretical background (e.g., information processing view, knowledge management). In order to clarify the concept information sharing used in this study, this section also introduces another form of informational interaction, namely communication, and provides a comparison with the concept of information sharing.

Data, information, and knowledge

All businesses, processes and transactions are full of data – some less and some more unstructured. There are a number of concepts that relate closely to information sharing: data, information, communication, and knowledge. They have not always been defined distinctly and are used in a disorganized manner depending on the research stream and author⁹ (see Gooijer 2000; Kumar & Palvia 2001; Lueg 2001;

Lummus & Vokurka 1999; Mason-Jones & Towill 1998; Noorlander 2001;

9 In Allee’s (2003, 81) opinion, “there will never be a universally agreed definition for either knowledge or information.” Later on she continues: ”…there is no such thing as pure information, data, or knowledge.”

Ramaprasad & Rai 1996; Rowley 1998; and Warkentin, Bapna & Sugumaran 2000).

The most consistent views concern the definition of data. According to Davis &

Botkin (1994), “data can be displayed as a form of numbers, words, sounds and images, and data are the building blocks of the information economy.”

The definition of information is more complex, and there are several of them. First, it can be described as “data that have been arranged into meaningful patterns” (Davis &

Botkin 1994). Sveiby (1996, 382) points out the Oxford English Dictionary definition of information, and how it is connected both to knowledge and communication:

“Information is knowledge communicated concerning some particular fact, subject or event; that of which one is apprised to tell; intelligence, news.”

Often information is regarded as explicit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995), and is differentiated from another familiar concept, “tacit knowledge”. In fact, knowledge refers to the application and productive use of information (Davis & Botkin 1994), or as stated by Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995, 58), “knowledge is about beliefs, commitment and action. Thus, information is context-specific and relational, and a flow of messages.”

In this study the following definition of information is used: “Information refers to anything in verbal, written, or symbolic form that can be read, viewed, heard and comprehended by another human being” (Allee 2003, 82). She emphasizes that all interpretation and understanding is social in nature, which leads us to the discussion on the action of information sharing.

Information sharing and communication

Halinen (1997) makes a distinction between information sharing and social exchange, which together constitute the concept communication. Fourboul Voynnet & Bournois (1999) refer to Laramée (1989) when comparing information to communication and stating: “Information is considered to be data which has acquired attributes of significance, whereas communication is a process of transmission where behavior

plays an important part.” Yet another classification is provided by Mohr & Spekman (1994, 139), who define information sharing referring “to the extent to which critical, often proprietary, information is communicated to one’s partner.”

The phrase sharing of information could be used as a synonym for exchange or communication with only slight distinction: exchange takes place between two or more partners, whereas sharing is one-way (in this research, information sharing origins from the focal company, and sharing is a well-reasoned concept to be used).

On the other hand, Johnsen et al. (2000) speak about information processing, when describing information activities in a network. According to Jarvenpaa & Staples (2000, 130), information sharing embeds the notion of willingness to share.

Accordingly, involuntary information sharing is actually called information reporting, whereas information sharing is understood as a voluntary act of making information available to others.

To summarize, the phrase information sharing, used in this study, refers to the voluntary, one-way act controlled by the focal company. Information sharing is regarded as an interaction process between the buyer and their suppliers, although here the interaction is considered only from the focal firm’s perspective due to the limitation. The definition provided earlier by Mohr & Spekman (1994) is useful in the context of this study. It not only expresses the content of action, but also relates the communication aspect to the concept. Although communication – referring to the social exchange between individuals – is intentionally limited out of the focus of this study, it cannot be totally ignored. In fact, when describing information sharing in R&D collaboration in particular, drawing the line between information sharing and communication may be difficult. Especially when dealing with information sharing media, the role of communication and its social dimension is emphasized. In other words, sharing of information, for example, during face-to-face meetings involves a high amount of social exchange, and therefore the communication aspects must be included in the analysis.

To clarify the difference between information sharing and knowledge, it can be said that smooth and efficient information sharing requires a sufficient level of knowledge, skills, and capability. Therefore, when analyzing the contexts of information sharing, the role of knowledge is always at hand especially on the level of individuals.