Children as composers of music

In this inquiry it is acknowledged that creative music making appears in various forms in early childhood, for instance in spontaneous song-making and singing games (e.g.

Campbell, 1998; Fredrikson, 1994, 2003; Marsh & Young, 2007; Papousek, 1996; Sundin, 1997). The perspectives on ‘composing’ among children in the research literature are divided.

The development of children’s creativity has interested researchers in the field of music education for decades (Brophy, 2002; Burnard, 2006a; Hickey, 2003a; Kratus, 1995;

Paananen, 2006; Swanwick & Tillman, 1986; Tafuri, 2006). In 1997 Sundin wrote that although researchers generally agree “on the existence of some kind of musical creativity among children” (p. 49) or at least the ability the degree to which this creativity is valued varies considerably. There was, and still seems to be, a difference of opinion, for instance, over what qualifies as composing, and whether children’s musical creations deserve to be called creative. This connects to the variety of creativity discourses regarding what is meant by creating and composing.

52 Sundin (1997) further writes, that it often assumed that there are two kinds of ‘musicality’, one that is revealed in the spontaneous and/or creative activities of a child and another that is acknowledged when meeting the adults’ expectations.

From birth, children “become familiarized with music as a basic means of non-verbal social and affective communication” (Papousek, 1996, p. 107–108) while interacting with their guardians. Furthermore, Barrett (2006b) notes that young children’s independent invented song-making “evolves from their early musico-communicative interaction with others” (p. 201). Thus, childrens’ ability for creative exploration and music making, in various forms in early childhood is acknowledged. Such musical creation occurs in the forms of vocal play, and playful creative exploration, eventually evolving into spontaneous singing, singing games, and learning conventional songs (see Campbell, 1998; Marsh &

Young, 2007; Papousek, 1996; Sundin, 1963, 1997).

According to Sundin (1963), Werner is considered to be the pioneer of researching and recording children’s songs. Werner aimed to describe the songs’ development and the typical melodic patterns present in the songs of children at different ages. Sundin (1963), Pond (1981), Björkvold (1991), and Campbell (1998) have also examined children’s spontaneous singing. The first singing forms are often described as ambiguous and variable, and may be paralleled to scribbles. Björkvold (1991) sees spontaneous singing as a cultural process and explains that songs from the adult world enter early into children’s singing but are often reproduced, and changed (e.g. compressed). Later, the formula-song (e.g. familiar so-mi-la

‘teasing formula’) becomes an important way to communicate with others. Marsh (1995 and 2008) has explored children’s ‘musical playgrounds’ internationally and the global tradition of children’s musical play (e.g. clapping games). She believes that children’s play should be better utilized in classrooms to support children’s creative potential. Through musical activities the child may communicate and feel solidarity and belongingness with others (see Chapter 3.2.2 on musical agency).

Originality, for instance, is one of the important criteria for defining C-creativity.⁵³ One may argue that the songs composed by children are not always original from the viewpoint of an experienced musician, even if they are new and original to the producers, because such songs are based on the musical influences that surround the children. Being connected and making use of the culture and traditions in which one has grown up is, however, natural. Everyone becomes part of his or her musical culture whether they want to or not (see Green, 2002). No composer, whether child or adult, acts alone. As Elliott (1995) asserts, the creator “is connected to a network of direct and indirect musical, social, and cultural achievements and relationships” (p. 217) in which those who succeed in their creative efforts “inevitably stand on the shoulders of past and present doers and makers in their domain” (p. 217).

53 See further elaboration on C-creativity and c-creativity in Section 3.1.

Burnard (2007) highlights that whatever the context (e.g. Western classical, rap, reggae, or the micro-cultures of the family or classroom), music is always “created and recreated within a network of cultural conventions” (p. 1199). Musical creativity arises, or is restrained, within these different contexts.

Another controversial issue in the literature seems to be the age at which children are considered to be capable of composing (e.g., Barrett, 1996; Kratus, 1989). Kratus’

(1994) findings, for instance, as Sundin (1997) analyzes, supported “the view that most children are incapable of conscious composing until the age of about nine years, when form, structure and ability to replicate their composed songs appear more clearly than at an earlier age” (p. 55). This argument is in contrast to conceptions of composing that emphasize it more as creative exploration (e.g. NCCF, 1994, especially grades 1 and 2).

The issue of ‘conscious composing’ is a complex matter, and based upon my experiences and reading, I see it as dependent on the person and situation, not necessarily always age dependent. Persons who are regarded as musically highly creative, for instance, may describe their creative process as sometimes being sudden and expressive, and it is possible that even quite young children’s processes may be intentional and productive.

From the viewpoint of this research it is important is that everyone is supported and learns to trust in their ability to experiment, create, compose. As Kaschub and Smith (2013) put it, “most people can imagine and organize sounds so that they can be shared with others” (p. 8). This suggests that classroom composing is attainable and that children are capable music makers and composers (e.g., Burnard, 2012; Glover, 2000).

In this inquiry the term composing is used as a verb that includes both the process of doing and the product of what gets done during the creation process.⁵⁴ Composing is seen as one way of being musically active. It is also emphasized, following Sawyer (2008), that everybody has the potential to actualize his or her musical creativity through the act of composing alone or in collaboration with others. It is the nature of the collaboration that may support or hinder creative potential in education. Composing as a form of action within music education is viewed as being within everyone’s reach. The level of ‘creative achievement’ is secondary to the entire process, but remains important. It is emphasized that when children are composing, a composition is any musical work that its creator finds as meaningful (Nilsson, 2002; Nilsson and Folkestad, 2005, p. 35). In the primary classroom, the criteria of originality and significance to the students are verified by the classroom community.

54 For instance, collaboratively composing songs through songcrafting often involves improvisation and experimentation, but also requires making decisions and documenting the product (see Chapter 2).

In music, collaborative creation is seen as an agentive form of participation wherein musical creative agency is desirable for the participants. Thus, for the purposes of this inquiry, composing and creative collaboration are not reserved only for those who have attained “proficient levels” within music (see Elliott, 1995, p. 220⁵⁵). Instead, this potential for creativity may and should be supported as part of music education at school.