Changes in the proportions of SFA, MUFA and PUFA

The proportion of total SFA decreased within the CSO group in all fractions (Tables 10–13). The change was statistically significant as compared with other groups in EM and as compared with fatty fish and lean fish groups in CE. Of the individual SFAs, the proportion of palmitic acid decreased in all fractions within the CSO group.

Considerable variation was found in the proportion of total MUFAs in different fractions and among the groups. In the CSO group, an increase was found within EM and PL, whereas there was a decrease in CE and no change in TG (Tables 10–13).

However, the change was statistically significant only in EM as compared with other groups (FDRp < 0.001, Table 10) and in CE as compared with control and lean fish groups (FDR p=0.011, Table 12). There was an increase in the proportion of total MUFAs within fatty fish, lean fish and control groups in EM (Table 10) and within the control group in PL (Table 11). Of individual MUFAs, changes were found mostly in EM and CE fractions (Tables 10 and 12). The proportion of palmitoleic acid decreased in EM and CE in the CSO group as compared with the control group. The proportion of oleic acid increased in EM and CE in the lean fish and control groups as compared with the CSO group.

The proportion of total PUFAs increased in CE and TG in the CSO group (Tables 12 and 13). In pairwise comparison, the CSO group significantly differed from the lean fish and control groups only in the CE fraction. Of individualn-6 PUFAs, linoleic acid increased in EM, whereas dihomo- -linolenic acid decreased in all fractions in the CSO group. Decreases in othern-6 PUFAs were observed within the CSO and fatty fish group in all fractions except in TG (Tables 10–13).

60 Table 10. The fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes: baseline proportions and changes Fatty acids are expressed as mol% of total fatty acids. Values are means (± SD for the change). a Differences in fold changes among the groups were tested using ANCOVA adjusted for baseline value, age and sex followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc tests. Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) was used to adjust results for multiple comparisons. b Change within the group was determined by the paired samples t-test or Wilcoxon signed ranks test,p < 0.05. Post hoc tests:cp < 0.05 lean fish vs control group;dp < 0.05 CSO vs. control group;ep < 0.05 CSO vs. fatty fish group;fp < 0.05 CSO vs. lean fish group;gp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. control group;hp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. lean fish group. i Omega-3 index was calculated as the sum of the proportions of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte membranes (as weight-% of total fatty acids). ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; CSO, camelina sativa oil; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acidCSO (n=18)Fatty fish (n=20)Lean fish (n=21)Control (n=20)p valuesa 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wkChangeSDANCOVAFDR Myristic acid14:00.47–0.05b0.06 0.42–0.004 0.04 0.47–0.05b0.06 0.42–0.0020.060.2530.283 Pentadecanoic acid15:00.17–0.01b0.02 0.15–0.01b0.02 0.17–0.01b0.02 0.160.0040.050.3960.426 Palmitic acid16:021.1–0.37b0.42 20.920.040.34 21.26–0.130.50 21.010.140.590.017d0.021 Margaric acid17:00.32–0.010.02 0.29–0.01b0.02 0.31–0.004 0.02 0.32 9.3 x 10-18 0.050.8720.872 Stearic acid18:014.94–0.120.35 15.03 –0.21b0.22 14.95–0.070.32 15.05–0.13b0.230.5060.525 Arachidic acid20:00.530.06b0.03 0.530.010.05 0.55–0.004 0.04 0.53–0.0010.060.001def0.002 Behenic acid22:01.67–0.15b0.12 1.62–0.030.17 1.63–0.004 0.09 1.68–0.050.120.003ef0.004 Lignoceric acid24:04.84–0.52b0.24 4.70–0.080.22 4.72–0.050.24 4.78–0.15b0.26<0.001def <0.001 SFA44.00 –1.19b0.51 43.65 –0.29b0.57 44.05 –0.33b0.54 43.96–0.200.61<0.001def <0.001 Palmitoleic acid16:1n-70.40–0.05b0.07 0.46–0.04b0.06 0.42–0.020.07 0.390.010.080.016d0.020 Oleic acid18:1n-912.16–0.150.36 12.030.16b0.25 12.460.170.53 11.860.40b0.580.007df0.010 Vaccenic acid18:1n-71.04–0.030.07 1.090.010.06 1.080.02b0.05 1.080.030.070.002df0.003 Eicosenoic acid20:1n-9 + 11 0.340.34b0.12 0.330.020.03 0.320.010.04 0.310.030.07<0.001def <0.001 Nervonic acid24:1n-95.331.50b0.42 5.420.30b0.35 5.290.17b0.28 5.510.180.57<0.001def <0.001 MUFA19.261.61b0.75 19.320.43b0.49 19.570.35b0.72 19.160.65b0.96<0.001def <0.001 -linolenic acid18:3n-30.180.25b0.11 0.190.010.04 0.22–0.010.03 0.180.050.14<0.001def <0.001 Eicosapentaenoic acid20:5n-31.65–0.020.48 1.500.40b0.26 1.58–0.160.49 1.43–0.140.32<0.001egh <0.001 Docosapentaenoic acid22:5n-33.050.210.42 3.09–0.050.18 3.04–0.16b0.17 3.15–0.12b0.23<0.001def <0.001 Docosahexaenoic acid22:6n-37.70–1.03b0.45 7.420.75b0.76 6.910.300.70 7.76–0.52b0.74<0.001defgh <0.001 Linoleic acid18:2n-67.930.45b0.48 8.00–0.31b0.46 8.17–0.100.46 7.690.070.44<0.001def <0.001 Dihomo--linolenic acid20:3n-61.52–0.12b0.17 1.65–0.11b0.12 1.50–0.040.15 1.530.030.180.009dg0.012 Arachidonic acid20:4n-612.54–0.050.49 13.01 –0.60b0.63 12.730.140.57 12.790.081.00<0.001gh <0.001 Adrenic acid22:4n-61.90–0.080.19 1.85–0.19b0.22 1.95–0.010.30 2.020.070.20<0.001gh <0.001 Osbond acid22:5n-60.28–0.03b0.04 0.32–0.04b0.05 0.290.03b0.04 0.310.010.08<0.001dfgh <0.001 PUFA36.74 –0.42b0.72 37.03–0.140.54 36.38–0.020.80 36.88–0.451.120.2430.283 Omega-3 indexi10.19 –1.07b0.87 9.771.22b1.08 9.30–0.030.83 10.01–0.71b1.02<0.001efgh<0.001

61

Table 11. The fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids: baseline proportions and changes Fatty acids are expressed as mol% of total fatty acids. Values are means ± SD. a Differences in fold changes among the groups were tested using ANCOVA adjusted for baseline value, age and sex followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc tests. Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) was used to adjust results for multiple comparisons. b Change within the group was determined by the paired samples t-test or Wilcoxon signed ranks test,p < 0.05. Post hoc tests:cp < 0.05 CSO vs. control group;dp < 0.05 CSO vs. fatty fish group;ep < 0.05 CSO vs. lean fish group;fp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. control group; gp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. lean fish group. ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; CSO, camelina sativa oil; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acidCSO (n=18)Fatty fish (n=20)Lean fish (n=21)Control (n=20)p valuesa 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD ANCOVAFDR Myristic acid14:00.53–0.06b0.10 0.45–0.020.12 0.53–0.07b0.14 0.430.020.110.9330.933 Pentadecanoic acid15:00.23–0.010.04 0.20–0.010.03 0.23–0.03b0.05 0.20–0.010.030.4470.503 Palmitic acid16:029.01 –0.59b1.00 29.21–0.091.18 29.17–0.330.84 29.34–0.221.810.2770.394 Margaric acid17:00.370.0040.05 0.36–0.030.06 0.36–0.010.05 0.36–0.04b 0.060.011c0.025 Stearic acid18:012.380.051.03 12.100.010.77 12.100.090.64 12.56 –0.42b 0.790.3940.484 Arachidic acid20:00.420.07b0.08 0.41 –0.0005 0.07 0.440.010.06 0.420.020.080.020d0.039 Behenic acid22:00.85–0.050.14 0.75–0.002 0.16 0.820.040.19 0.81–0.050.140.3470.446 Lignoceric acid24:00.76–0.13b0.11 0.640.010.13 0.710.010.16 0.70–0.050.130.0500.083 SFA44.55 –0.72b0.75 44.13–0.140.88 44.35–0.290.81 44.81 –0.76b 1.810.6670.720 Palmitoleic acid16:1n-70.64–0.040.11 0.80–0.09b0.18 0.71–0.030.12 0.630.090.220.0380.068 Oleic acid18:1n-910.400.041.10 10.88-0.180.98 10.310.511.27 9.731.01b1.460.1760.264 Vaccenic acid18:1n-71.40–0.040.17 1.480.010.19 1.50–0.010.11 1.450.030.150.4280.502 Eicosenoic acid20:1n-9 + 11 0.320.25b0.12 0.330.040.11 0.310.010.04 0.310.0040.06<0.001cde<0.001 Nervonic acid24:1n-91.600.50b0.38 1.630.120.30 1.680.060.31 1.68–0.040.37<0.001cde<0.001 MUFA14.350.71b1.09 15.12–0.101.04 14.510.541.19 13.801.09b1.460.3130.423 -linolenic acid18:3n-30.380.42b0.23 0.360.050.17 0.43–0.010.07 0.320.030.10<0.001cde<0.001 Eicosapentaenoic acid20:5n-32.220.330.93 2.000.72b1.07 2.24–0.291.13 2.04–0.080.77<0.001fg<0.001 Docosapentaenoic acid22:5n-31.320.020.17 1.34–0.005 0.15 1.30–0.08b0.13 1.33–0.05b 0.090.018e0.037 Docosahexaenoic acid22:6n-35.87–0.67b0.96 5.780.70b1.19 5.400.020.77 6.16–0.531.25<0.001dfg<0.001 Linoleic acid18:2n-619.611.00b1.76 18.96–0.301.86 19.750.291.90 18.460.051.880.0520.083 Dihomo--linolenic acid20:3n-63.03–0.57b0.33 3.02–0.23b0.43 2.89–0.120.28 2.96–0.010.39<0.001cde<0.001 Arachidonic acid20:4n-68.24–0.46b0.84 8.80–0.61b0.88 8.69–0.080.98 9.630.221.080.007cf0.017 Adrenic acid22:4n-60.27–0.04b0.06 0.31–0.05b0.06 0.280.010.05 0.300.03b0.05<0.001cf<0.001 Osbond acid22:5n-60.15–0.03b0.05 0.19–0.03b0.05 0.160.020.05 0.190.0010.050.003eg0.008 PUFA41.100.011.22 40.750.231.35 41.13–0.251.29 41.39–0.332.300.8700.903

62 Table 12. The fatty acid composition of plasma cholesteryl esters: baseline proportions and changes Fatty acids are expressed as mol% of total fatty acids. Values are means (± SD for the change). a Differences in fold changes among the groups were tested using ANCOVA adjusted for baseline value, age and sex followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc tests. Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) was used to adjust results for multiple comparisons. bChange within the group was determined by the paired samples t-test or Wilcoxon signed ranks test,p < 0.05. Post hoc tests:cp < 0.05 CSO vs. fatty fish group;dp < 0.05 CSO vs. lean fish group;ep < 0.05 CSO vs. control group;fp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. control group;gp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. lean fish group. ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; CSO, camelina sativa oil; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acidCSO (n=18)Fatty fish (n=20)Lean fish (n=21)Control (n=20)p valuesa 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD ANCOVAFDR Myristic acid14:01.07–0.22b0.19 0.92–0.060.17 1.05–0.110.27 0.89–0.020.190.6210.658 Palmitic acid16:011.59 –0.66b0.58 11.46–0.060.36 11.64–0.120.61 11.84–0.240.740.005cde0.011 Stearic acid18:00.75–0.050.15 0.71–0.050.11 0.75–0.020.17 0.83–0.120.300.7970.797 SFA13.41 –0.92b0.67 13.09–0.160.46 13.45–0.250.92 13.55–0.381.000.017cd0.028 Palmitoleic acid16:1n-7 3.40–0.67b0.83 4.16–0.51b1.01 3.52–0.230.96 3.350.050.870.024e0.036 Oleic acid18:1n-9 19.86 –0.73b1.38 20.700.041.65 19.210.702.10 19.410.97b1.470.016de0.028 Vaccenic acid18:1n-7 1.11–0.11b0.17 1.160.020.12 1.110.030.10 1.19–0.001 0.140.002cde0.006 MUFA24.37 –1.50b1.79 26.02–0.462.46 23.840.492.87 23.951.022.260.005de0.011 -linolenic acid18:3n-3 1.081.28b0.52 1.040.17b0.39 1.22–0.070.19 0.990.010.26<0.001cde <0.001 Eicosapentaenoic acid 20:5n-3 2.240.180.90 1.970.90b0.80 2.33–0.231.12 2.17–0.280.62<0.001cfg <0.001 Docosahexaenoic acid 22:6n-3 1.07–0.140.20 1.010.160.17 0.980.010.16 1.13–0.070.25<0.001cfg <0.001 Linoleic acid18:2n-6 50.051.86b2.23 48.74–0.142.72 50.200.133.43 49.10–0.253.550.0630.087 -linolenic acid18:3n-6 0.93–0.16b0.27 0.87–0.080.27 0.85–0.020.29 0.870.050.230.1160.139 Dihomo--linolenic acid20:3n-6 0.82–0.18b0.11 0.81–0.05b0.10 0.77–0.030.07 0.84–0.020.13<0.001cde<0.001 Arachidonic acid20:4n-6 6.03–0.41b0.77 6.46–0.34b0.72 6.36–0.040.77 7.40–0.081.240.0780.100 PUFA62.222.42b2.03 60.890.62b2.70 62.71–0.243.04 62.51–0.632.960.006de0.012

63

Table 13. The fatty acid composition of plasma triglycerides: baseline proportions and changes Fatty acids are expressed as mol% of total fatty acids. Values are means (± SD for the change). a Differences in fold changes among the groups were tested using ANCOVA adjusted for baseline value, age and sex followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc tests. Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) was used to adjust results for multiple comparisons. b Change within the group was determined by the paired samples t-test or Wilcoxon signed ranks test,p < 0.05. Post hoc tests:c p < 0.05 CSO vs. control group;dp < 0.05 CSO vs. fatty fish group;ep < 0.05 CSO vs. lean fish group;fp < 0.05 lean fish vs. control group;gp < 0.05 fatty fish vs. lean fish group;h p < 0.05 fatty fish vs. control group. ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; CSO, camelina sativa oil; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acidCSO (n=18)Fatty fish (n=20)Lean fish (n=21)Control (n=20)p valuesa 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD 0 wk Change SD ANCOVAFDR Myristic acid14:02.93–0.64b0.80 2.50–0.051.01 2.77–0.211.14 2.47–0.020.900.8160.816 Palmitic acid16:026.57 –2.01b2.62 27.25–0.453.48 26.78–0.282.85 27.22–1.123.220.0660.132 Stearic acid18:03.360.110.81 3.57–0.010.83 3.440.210.69 3.44–0.250.610.1130.161 SFA32.86 –2.54b3.64 33.32–0.504.79 32.99–0.284.16 33.14–1.394.260.0960.160 Palmitoleic acid16:1n-74.08–0.53b0.88 4.62–0.310.92 4.29–0.320.72 4.320.040.890.1080.161 Oleic acid18:1n-939.440.233.11 39.55–0.172.83 39.021.483.56 39.050.973.140.4470.513 Vaccenic acid18:1n-72.31–0.17b0.24 2.61–0.110.29 2.56–0.090.27 2.460.110.310.005c0.013 Eicosenoic acid20:1n-9 + 11 0.620.26b0.23 0.630.040.15 0.630.010.10 0.580.040.10<0.001cde <0.001 MUFA46.44–0.213.45 47.41–0.543.23 46.501.083.65 46.421.153.510.3300.426 -linolenic acid18:3n-32.132.03b1.31 1.780.250.77 2.06–0.060.59 1.950.090.60<0.001cde<0.001 Eicosapentaenoic acid20:5n-30.660.080.46 0.710.14b0.76 0.71–0.110.46 0.610.050.450.001gh0.004 Docosapentaenoic acid22:5n-30.700.030.25 0.660.10b0.27 0.77–0.150.33 0.70–0.020.200.005g0.013 Docosahexaenoic acid22:6n-32.00–0.210.90 2.050.592.29 1.94–0.311.23 1.950.021.620.002dgh0.007 Linoleic acid18:2n-613.510.923.31 12.350.031.55 13.17–0.132.33 13.340.032.370.3410.426 -linolenic acid18:3n-60.33–0.020.08 0.26–0.020.05 0.32–0.010.08 0.350.030.140.0900.160 Dihomo--linolenic acid20:3n-60.27–0.04b0.06 0.27–0.010.05 0.28–0.02b0.03 0.280.010.050.001cf0.004 Arachidonic acid20:4n-61.09–0.040.24 1.21–0.040.28 1.27–0.030.25 1.270.030.400.4870.513 PUFA20.702.75b5.01 19.271.054.35 20.51–0.803.47 20.440.244.600.0490.109

64

5.2.3 Correlations between fish consumption before and during the