CETSCALE and CES

CETSCALE is the original scale created by Shimp and Sharma in 1987 to measure ethnocentrism. The respondents respond to a set of 17 statements, on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree), to assess the consumer's ethnocentric tendencies. These 17 statements are then aggregated to form a total score (on a scale of 17-119) of ethnocentrism for each respondent. CETSCALE is a domain-specific concept in marketing and consumer behavior when compared to sociological measurements (Shimp & Sharma 1987, 287).

CETSCALE is uni-dimensional, internally consistent and reliable among Chinese respondents (Wong et al. 2008, 462). CETSCALE has also been previously utilized and validated in cross-cultural context (Reardon et al. 2005, 744), and considered a valid tool for such a research (Altinta & Tokol 2007, 314).

Though CETSCALE has been vastly used and validated, and has been the scale used in a plethora of cross-cultural research on consumer ethnocentrism, Sharma (2015) came up with a new scale called CES, which had developed from the original CETSCALE. Sharma (2015, 382)

argues that CETSCALE over-emphasizes socio-normative and economic aspects, as those might change over time.

In developing countries, foreign products may be perceived differently due to dependence on them, not because they are preferred, and CETSCALE might not always be applicable in such instances (Sharma 2015, 382). Sharma continues, that while most studies in the USA have found CETSCALE to be unidimensional, studies elsewhere found more than one dimension, hence the lack of consensus on the conceptual and empirical structure of CE and its applicability across different product categories, countries and consumer characteristics (2015, 382).

Sharma argues that consumer ethnocentrism is a three-dimensional attitude consisting of affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects (2015, 383). The aspects are described as following:

1) Affective reaction: Affective reaction refers to the particular preference/disdain that is attached to the distinction between an individual’s own group and other group.

This may be seen as an affinity for domestic products and disdain for foreign products, irrespective of their respective qualities. (Sharma 2015, 383).

2) Cognitive bias: Cognitive bias refers to perceptions about in-groups and out-groups and include perceptions about events that portray own group favorably and other groups as inferior, weaker and unimportant. Cognitive bias is found in how groups perceive domestic and foreign products. (Sharma 2015, 383).

3) Behavioral preference: Behavioral preference refers to the behavioral aspects of consumer ethnocentrism – rejection and acceptance of products. It is the most important aspect of consumer ethnocentrism and goes beyond the purchase decision, as it also includes willingness to try, repeat purchase and positive word-of-mouth.

(Sharma 2015, 384).

The scale is useful when aiming to perceive the unique influence of the combination of affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of ethnocentrism. The scale was based on a research conducted in 4 countries (China, USA, UK, India) and since then validated (Sharma 2015, 384-386). It has been developed from CETSCALE to include a more thorough picture of consumer behavior compared to the unidimensional structures offered in prior research. CETSCALE was intended to be multidimensional, and CES achieved it, giving a much richer picture of the

socio-psychological variables in play. CES has three dimensions with six statements each. Yet it still only consists of 18-items scoring on the same scale of 1-7 (compared to the 17-items in the original CETSCALE by Shimp and Sharma), making it not any harder to use. Thus, CES scale is used in this research due to its more recent, multidimensional nature and better fit for cross-cultural work.

Table 4. CES and it’s translation to Finnish and Chinese

Statement Finnish translation Chinese translation

Affective Reaction

1. I love the products and services

from (Home country) Rakastan kotimaisia tuotteita ja

palveluita. 我非常喜欢母国生产的产品和服务

Ihailen kotimaisia tuotteita ja

palveluita. 我欣赏母国生产的产品和服务

4. I feel attached to the products and

services from (Home country) Tunnen kiintymystä kotimaisiin

tuot-teisiin ja palveluihin. 我对母国生产的产品和服务有所情

感 5. I hate the products and services

from foreign countries Vihaan ulkomaisia tuotteita ja palve-luita.

我不喜欢他国生产的产品和服务

6. I despise the products and services

from foreign countries Inhoan ulkomaisia tuotteita ja

palve-luita. 我厌恶他国生产的产品和服务

Cognitive Bias

1. East or West, the products and ser-vices from (Home country) are the 4. Products and services from foreign

countries are no match for those from (Home country)

Ulkomaiset tuotteet ja palvelut eivät

pärjää kotimaisille 他国生产的产品和服务与母国的无

法比

5. (Home country) has the hardest working people in manufacturing industry

Behavioral Preference

kotimaisen tuotteen tai palvelun. 如果能够选择的话，我会倾向于消 费来自母国的产品和服务

3. I prefer being served by service

pro-viders from (Home country) Minä suosin kotimaisia palvelujen

tuottajia. 我比较希望被来自母国的服务业者 service because it is from a foreign country

Jätän usein ostamatta tuotteen tai

pal-velun, koska se on ulkomainen. 我经常会因为一个产品或服务是来

自他国(并非母国）而不愿意去消费 6. I would much rather not buy a

pro-duct or service, than buy one from a foreign country