T
he dual nature of carrying capacity can be re-evaluated by understand-ing and conceptualisunderstand-ing the issue of the carryunderstand-ing capacity of tourism as a socially constructed limit(s) of tourism development (see Hughes 1995). As a social construct, carrying capacity refers to the maximum level of known and perceived impacts of tourism in a certain time-space context before they are considered to be too disturbing from the perspectives of specific social, cultural, political or economic actors who can use practices manifesting sufficient power over the chosen indicators and criteria for carrying capacity (Saarinen 2001).This complex definition indicates that the concept is (i) relative and (ii) laden with power issues. This determination of the limits of tourism carrying capacity is asso-ciated with power relations constituted by different discourses of capacity – the appropriate level of use – on local, national and finally global scales (see Munt &
Mowforth 1998). For example, such questions as who can define and decide what is an ecologically acceptable practice and change, or what resources we should sustain in tourism and for whom, are all loaded with power issues. In most cases the answers to these questions are not derived directly from the touristic impacts themselves but from the practices and discourses of the power relations defining them. Through the discourses of economies and politics, different social groups define and contest the appropriate goal, method and level for the use of natural and cultural resources as well as different conceptualisations of nature and culture (see Macnaghten & Urry 1998; Wall 1996).
The carrying capacity of tourism can be understood as a dynamic, contested concept which is continually being constructed and reconstructed during the development process of tourism. The conceptualisation of carrying capacity as a social construct does not necessarily undervalue the realm of nature (see Sack 1992: 81–82) or ecological changes and their character in any objective or measurable sense. Impacts do exist in the physical world without human values and meanings, and tourism development may change ecosystems and indigenous cultures, destroy habitats and disturb wild life. But in the world of meanings and social forces, the question of whether these changes are accept-able or unacceptaccept-able depends on the perspective, the touristic discourses and our (societal) values, attitudes and priorities concerning the role and impacts of tourism. Naturally, the determination of carrying capacity also depends on the variables and indicators chosen, which have not yet been properly developed for the evaluation of tourism impacts (see Hall & Lew 1998; Wheeler 1993;
Pigram 1990). This is especially the case with the social and cultural conse-quences of tourism development. Without any general or place-specific indica-tors and monitoring, however, both carrying capacity and sustainable tourism may become almost meaningless jargon without any real reference to the ho-listic and ethical idea of sustainable development.
Jarkko Saarinen
University of Lapland & Finnish Forest Research Institute jarkko.saarinen@urova.fi
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