Needless to say, Japan, Finland and Korea all are the societies which could be called pioneering and advanced information societies along with the United States. Before the main discussion, let me take a brief look at the diffusion of advanced ICTs in each society. Northern Europe is a leading area of ICT development and its social diffusion since 1990s (Castells and Himanen 2004, Kimura 2004; The Economist Intelligent Unit 2008). Finland has led innovations in telecommu-nications, especially mobile commutelecommu-nications, with the world’s largest cellular phone company,
Nokia. Finnish developers have had a strong influence, for example, on the development of GSM and UMTS standards. As to the Internet-related field, Linux and Internet banking services, for instance, are originated from Finland.
As for Japan and Korea, remarkable is the commercialization and social diffusion of FTTx (Fiber to the home, curb, building etc.) and advanced mobile technologies. As of September 2006, the number of FTTH subscribers in Japan was 7.15 million, and in Korea almost 3 million people living in high-rise apartments subscribed to FTTB, fiber to the building, or FTTC, fiber to the curb,18 coupled with high-speed LAN connection. They are by far ahead of Europe and the United States. Both societies are also leading in the spread of 3G mobile services. According to ENTER, a Spanish research agency, and IDATE, an European consulting firm, as of June 2006, the num-ber of 3G customers is estimated to be just over 100 million, all over the world put together.
The Asia-Pacific region accounts for 50%, or 54 million, of which 29 million are in Japan and 11 million in Korea. Therefore, it is of great significance to compare these three societies from a cross-cultural point of view when information society studies are undertaken.
Before proceeding, I would like to make a precautious remark on mobile Internet. Some would say that mobile Internet and PC-based Internet, i.e., the Internet accessed through PC,19 are the same; it is just a matter of the path. Or, functionally, mobile Internet might be a miniature of PC-based Internet; a mobile device is just equipped with a smaller display, slower computational power and memory; on the other hand, mobile Internet liberates people from the constraint of location. However, I contend that mobile Internet is not just a matter of technology but deeply woven into cultural practice; so mobile Internet in Japan is distinctively different from that in other societies as well as different from PC-based Internet. Take a look at Table 1. The table, based on JFK survey II, shows social distribution of PC-based Internet use and mobile Internet use among the twenties in each society.
What is obvious is that mobile Internet is used to a remarkable extent by Japanese youngsters.
The large number of those who use both could mean that they use each differently; each has its own function or niche to fulfill. In fact, in Japan, when people use mobile Internet, many do not think it is a part of the Internet. They do not use the term “mobile Internet” or “Internet through mobile devices.” Mobile carriers charge the use of e-mail or weblike-browsing based on the amount of “packet.” People know when they use e-mail or weblike-browsing, they are charged “packet charge” and if they use much, they are charged much. However, they do not know what “packet communication” means. Mobile Internet fulfills quite different functions or needs.
In contrast, many Koreans do not seem to see mobile Internet as something necessary to have, in addition to PC-base Internet. As mentioned above, the subscription of 3G mobile phones is large in Korea; and yet the use of mobile Internet is almost the same as that in Finland, being far behind from that in Japan. What is more interesting, there is no one who use mobile Internet alone in Korea or Finland. This could mean that they consider PC-based Internet as an essential tool while mobile Internet provides them with additional functions which small number of people find interesting. In fact, mobile Internet has not caught on in many advanced information societ-ies before smartphones have come. Thus, development of cyberspace is almost identical of that of PC-based Internet so far. Therefore, I use the term cyberspace to refer to online social activity created through the use of PC-based Internet and take mobile Internet on its own in this article.
Table 1 PC-based Internet use and mobile Internet use in JFK survey II
Both PC-based Internet and mobile Internet
PC Internet only
Mobile
Internet only none
Japanese Females 73.2 7.3 14.6 4.9
Japanese Males 79.6 12.2 4.1 4.1
Finnish Females 17.5 82.0 0.6
Finnish Males 32.4 65.7 1.9
Korean Females 22.0 76.3 1.7
Korean Males 24.0 74.4 1.7
The argument of this article is based on two comparative surveys, JFK survey I and JFK survey II. JFK survey I started in 2002. We Japanese and Korean scholars were very interested in socio-cultural differences in the use of collective online communication services such as BBS, instant messenger and online community, between the Japanese and the Korean. We set out the comparative research project20 and planned and carried out the survey of undergraduate stu-dents at Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, and Korean University in Seoul, Korea in December 2002. Both universities are private and have got high reputation in each society for a long time.
Questionnaires were distributed and collected mostly in class. The numbers of respondents were 487 in Japan and 490 in Korea.
Then, Teppo Turkki was intrigued with the project; so, in close collaboration with me, he managed to conduct the survey with almost identical questionnaire in Finland with the help of Finnish Youth Research Network. The Finnish survey was carried out in 2003. The questionnaires were distributed amongst undergraduate students of University of Helsinki. The number of respon-dents was 315. In the analysis of JFK survey I, taking various researches we conducted into account, we were struck with a variety of socio-cultural differences across three countries. We have discussed them in a number of publications (e.g., Kimura 2004, 2008; Kim 2004; Saito and Kimura 2004, 2005, 2008; Ishii 2004, 2006; Ishii and Ogasawara 2007). However, as mentioned above, JFK survey I is the survey of undergraduate students in a single university each society due to small budget. Therefore, we felt it necessary to conduct another comparative survey to encompass larger population, leading to another comparative survey study, JFK survey II.
JFK survey II was planned and conducted by the same collaboration of the Japanese-Korean research team and the Finnish one. The outline of the survey in each society is as follows. In Japan, those who reside in 23 special wards of City of Tokyo, 20 to 69 years old, answered the direct-visit and self-completion questionnaire between November 29 and December 16, 2005.
The number of the respondents was 455. The sampling method is two-stage stratified random sampling. In Korea, those who reside in 25 special wards of City of Seoul, 20 to 69 years old, also answered direct-visit and self-completion questionnaire between November 4 and December 5, 2005. The number of the respondents was 1013. The sampling method is geographically segmented random sampling method. The Finnish survey was a national survey for 15 to 29 year olds. The questionnaire was sent via mail and collected between May and July, 2007. 1307 people answered it. The sampling method is geographically segmented random sampling method.
We wanted to carry out the survey in each society in the same framework as much as possible.
However, our research fund could only make the Japanese survey and the Korean one possible in 200521. Finnish Youth Research Network managed to conduct the Finnish counterpart in 2007.
Then, the Japanese and Korean survey and the Finnish one were different to some extent. In the former, the objective of the study is to find out the development of ICT use among adult population in metropolitan area in Japan and Korea. So, the sample is aged 20 to 69 and limited to those reside in 23 special wards of City of Tokyo and 25 special wards of City of Seoul. On the other hand, In the case of Finnish, the focus is on the Finnish youth at large. Thus, the sample is 15 to 29 years old nationwide. As a result, those in their twenties can be compared across three societies. The number of respondents in their twenties in each society is 90 Japanese (41 females and 49 males), 240 Koreans (118 females and 121 males) and 855 Finns (536 females and 319 males). Thus, Japanese sample is considerably small compared with the other societ-ies; still, in spite of the small Japanese sample, we have found significant statistical differences across three societies and it is possible to confirm all the differences we have found, comparing between the whole sample of the Koreans and that of the Japanese.