When the French immersion in Canada started, there were no ready set theories and practices behind the teaching. Instead, it developed into a successful practice through trial and error (Mehisto, Marsh, Frigols 2008, 10). This need not be done with CLIL, as it has been based on stronger theoretical frameworks. In other words, CLIL has got theories as its basis that need to be considered in order to create successful CLIL.
As has been established, there are various goals that are thought to be achieved by CLIL. In order for those goals to be achieved, there are basic principles that need to be noted. The conceptual framework of CLIL consists of four elements: content, communication, cognition and culture. Furthermore, other elements such as the language triptych and CLIL-matrix are used in creating and determining CLIL. These basic concepts will be introduced in more detail next.
Cognition
Culture
C on te xt Co nt ex t
Context Context
2.2.1 THE 4CS FRAMEWORK
The 4Cs framework works as the basis of CLIL. This framework is used to describe the symbiosis of the different factors that need to be taken into account. Coyle et al. (2010, 41) suggest that taking this symbiosis into account, effective CLIL can take place. The different components of the 4Cs framework are content, communication, cognition and culture, as portrayed in Figure 1 (see also Coyle 2007, 549-552). Also Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols introduce a similar division but use the concept of community instead of culture (2008, 30-31). However, the description of the concept of community is similar to the description of culture given by Coyle et al. (2010, 41). Thus, as Coyle et al.
(ibid.) explain, content refers to the subject or themes that are being taught whereas communication includes language learning and using. Cognition, naturally, refers to the learning and thinking processes and culture covers the development of intercultural understanding and global citizenship. According to Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols’ (2008, 31) also the role in the local community is an important part of functional CLIL.
However, the focus in the present thesis will be on the 4Cs introduced by Coyle, Hood and Marsh (ibid.), as it is a widely used framework.
Figure 1. The 4Cs Framework (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 2010, 41)
The content of CLIL can be decided on different basis. Coyle et al. (2010, 53) note that content does not have to be decided on a curricular subject such as chemistry etc.
Rather, other issues such as integration of subjects can be considered in the process of choosing the content. In fact, Coyle et al. (ibid.) point out that the learning of new knowledge, skills and understanding should work as the basis of choosing the content, rather than barely curricular subjects. However, Mehisto et al. (2008, 27) note that CLIL can also be incorporated into the regional or national curriculum and also Coyle et al.
(2010, 27-28) point out that in some cases curricular bases are an appropriate way of determining the content.
As was expressed previously, communication in the 4C’s framework refers to the language learning and using aspects of CLIL. As the term communication implies, the focus of the language learning is on communicative issues rather than in the issues traditional language learning emphasizes. Coyle et al. (2010, 54) suggest that the traditional understanding of language learning often emphasizes grammatical progression, whereas in the CLIL context communication and learning demands of the learning moment are focused on. Of course some grammatical issues need to be considered so that the students are able to produce and understand language needed in the learning situation, however the focus should not be solely on grammar, but rather, other aspects of language using need to be considered as well. In order to succeed in this, language needs to be approached from different perspectives and this is taken into account in CLIL with the help of the language triptych. The language triptych will be introduced in more detail next.
2.2.2 THE LANGUAGE TRIPTYCH
In CLIL language has a complex role. Instead of simply understanding language as means for learning content, it should be examined from different perspectives. Coyle et al. (2010, 36-38) introduce a conceptual representation of language: the language triptych. It describes the relationship between language and content objectives (see also Coyle 2007, 552-554).
As the name suggests there are three different aspects taken into account in the model.
In other words, language is described in three ways: language of learning, language for learning and language through learning.
Coyle et al. (2010, 37) describe language of learning as the basic knowledge of language that students need in order to be able to study a particular subject. First of all, the basic knowledge includes identifying the key words and phrases related to a specific topic (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 2010, 61). Secondly, the knowledge on how to use the key concepts is also important in terms of the language of learning. In other words, it is not enough to know just some words or phrases related to the topic but also list, for example, describing, evaluation and drawing conclusions. Furthermore, also the language skills needed for different kinds of learning situations are included in the language for learning. These situations include, for example, group work and organizing research. Thus, as Coyle et al. (2010, 62) point out, language for learning is a crucial element for successful CLIL.
Finally, language through learning according to Coyle et al. (ibid.) refers to the language that is learned during the learning situation. This learning of the language cannot be predicted as it appears and happens only in the learning situation. Coyle et al.
(2010, 63) point out that noticing the existence of language through learning should encourage teachers to notice the situations where new language learning happens in the learning moment. Then it can be utilized in the moment or later on. Since language through learning emerges in the learning situation, it is, however, important to consider beforehand how the new linguistic elements can be noticed and further developed, so that the students actually get the chance to learn new language. Coyle et al. (ibid.) note that it should be thought of beforehand, how the language the students already know could be practiced and extended. Also important aspects to consider are the strategies learners need in order to access new language.
2.2.3 COGNITIVE ENGAGEMENT
Coyle et al. (2010, 29) suggest that in order to achieve effective learning, the students need to be cognitively engaged (see also Coyle 2007, 554). In other words, the students need to be active participants in learning. Furthermore, they emphasize the importance
of cooperation and remind that it is important to provide the students with skills to work together in a foreign language.
In order to determine cognitive engagement, Anderson and Krathwohl have created a revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive skills according to Coyle et al.
(2010, 30). Krathwohl (2002, 213-215) introduces the model by explaining that cognitive processes are divided into two dimensions: lower-order processing and higher-order processing. The skills that have been listed under the lower-order processing category include remembering, understanding and applying. Remembering is further described to include recognizing and recalling. Understanding includes features such as interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing and explaining, whereas applying means executing and implementing.
The higher-order processing category contains more complex skills such as analysing, evaluating and creating. Analysing is further explained to describe features that can be used when concepts are broken down into parts and how they fit into the whole. These features are for example differentiating, organizing and attributing. Evaluating includes actions such as checking and critiquing. Finally, creating means the construction of something new or recognizing components of a new structure by, for example, generating, planning or producing.
In addition to the cognitive process dimension, Krathwohl (2002, 213-215) introduces the knowledge dimension. This dimension provides a framework that can be used to explore the demands of different types of knowledge. Thus, the knowledge dimension includes four elements: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge includes basic information such as terminology and specific details or elements. Conceptual knowledge then again means the understanding of how to put pieces of a larger structure into whole. In other words, it includes classifications and categorizations, basic principles and generalizations, theories, models and structures. Procedural knowledge is the knowledge on how to do something. It includes knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms, subject techniques and methods and knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures. Finally, metacognitive knowledge includes strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks and self-knowledge.
1
2 3
4 Cognitive demands LOWHIGH
Linguistic demands HIGH LOW
It is important to take these dimensions into account when planning and executing teaching. Coyle et al. (2010, 30) note that the dimensions can and should be used to ensure that the students get to learn the skills for different dimensions. Furthermore, the students should be provided with language skills that enable them to practice also the cognitive skills.
2.2.4 THE CLIL MATRIX
Implementing CLIL on students is not an easy task as there are several issues that need to be considered in order to do it successfully. Coyle et al. (2010, 43, 67) note that one of the most demanding tasks for the teacher is to provide students with material that is both linguistically and cognitively appropriately demanding. To help the teachers’ task of offering the students appropriate material, Coyle et al. (2010, 43-45) introduce the CLIL matrix portrayed in Figure 2. The figure is adapted from Cummins’ (1984, 138-139) description of language proficiency needed in a classroom. The CLIL matrix is a figure consisting of four quarters. Each quarter represents different levels of language and content knowledge. In other words, the CLIL matrix is a useful way of understanding the linguistic and cognitive demands for the students, for example, in individual exercises.
Figure 2. The CLIL Matrix (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 2010, 43)
The first quadrant demands the least linguistic and cognitive effort. According to Coyle et al. (2010, 44) the exercises that can be classified as belonging to the first quadrant are tasks which build up the students confidence. The language should mostly be familiar for the students. The first quadrant should be regarded as a transitory step towards quadrant two.
Coyle et al. (2010, 42-44, 68) continue by describing the quadrant two. In it the new terminology is used further and also more is introduced. Also abstract terminology can be added to the exercises. This quadrant should support the learning of new knowledge and expand the language knowledge. In the third quadrant the new language and content knowledge is reinforced further. Finally, the fourth quadrant has lower cognitive demands but the language demands can be developed further. For example specific demanding grammar issues could be included into this quadrant.