Numerous studies and reports on KRB fouling have been carried out in the past due to its particularly challenging operation. Effort was made towards a good comprehension of this challenge resulting in numerous approaches, fuel studies, predicting models and cleaning techniques in order to estimate and tackle fouling and slagging.
2.2.1 Fume
The burning of black liquor droplets leads to alkali salt vaporization. These vaporized salts cool down and/or react with furnace gases. They end up by condensing or coalescing into small particles called fume. Their diameter typically falls between 0.5 and 5 m (Figure 2.1) [17]. This size is determined by the fuel and combustion conditions in the furnace, since measurements by Mikkanenet al.[18] and Baxteret al.[19] have proved that the mean particle size does not vary significantly through the boiler. Fredericket al.
[20] noted that agglomerates tend to form and that the deposits may sinter. After sootblowing, some agglomerates re-enter the flue gas stream. These clusters of particles could be as large as 20—30 m.
Figure 2.1: Fume ash size concentration of dust samples collected before an electrostatic precipitator at different operating conditions. Janka et al., [17].
Fume is the most significant ash component in the flue gas of a KRB. In the electrostatic precipitator, most of the retrieved ash is fume. The fume formation has been found to depend on the mass rate of fired black liquor by Tamminenet al. [21] and on the furnace temperature by Leppänenet al.[22]. Additionally, the fume concentration has also been observed to increase with the dry solids concentration in the black liquor. On-site measurements in boilers yielded that typical fume concentration in the flue gas fall between 10 and 35 g/Nm3 [2].
The condensation of alkali vapors is often favored by the presence of impurities (typically metal oxides), constituting a propitious environment for heterogeneous nucleation. The
2.2 Ash and deposits in kraft recovery boilers 25
formed condensation nuclei grow until they reach a uniform stable size, typically significantly less than 10 m.
2.2.2 Carryover
Droplets of black liquor tend to swell upon combustion. The increase in volume leads to a decrease in density, making it possible for the flue gas to drag and carry away these droplets. These particles entrained in the main flue gas current are called carryover.
Droplets that eventually become carryover have a typical diameter around 1 mm (Vähä-Savoet al.,[23], Horton and Vakkilainen [24]).
Costa et al. [25] noted that the quantity of carryover depends strongly on the air flow settings and on the chosen air injection system. In modern firing systems, Kaila and Saviharju [26] show that the carryover in flue gas reaches a typical concentration of 2—
4 g/Nm3, whereas older conventional systems may present values as high as 5—8 g/Nm3 according to Mettiäinen [27].
It is possible to classify carryover into two types. Some particles have still carbon burning when they travel across the bullnose. As the flue gas temperature decreases suddenly the combustion may stop, leaving some unburnt char inside, resulting in a black particle. On the other hand, those other particles that have burnt completely are particularly rich in sodium sulfide. These particles have a pink or red color. This last type of carryover is more typical than the first one, especially in modern boilers where good air injection systems ensure improved combustion efficiencies.
2.2.3 Intermediate size particles (ISP)
The particles with size between several microns and 1 mm are very diverse and they are formed from different sources. Some large agglomerates of fume particles may sinter in a tube deposit, and be re-entrained again into the main flow stream, for instance, either by just detaching from surfaces because of the flow drag or by sootblowing. Other particles may be formed from small char fragments entrained in the flow. Other ISP may come from the entrainment of solids directly from black liquor droplet combustion.
Robers et al. [28] propose that the ISPs do not represent a significant fraction of ash forming particles in the gas.
2.2.4 Deposits
Owing to the characteristic impaction mechanisms of different particles (which shall be discussed later), the composition of deposits falls between those of carryover and fume as noted by Jankaet al. [29]. The deposits in different places of the boiler are constituted by different ratios of mixture of carryover and fume. Due to the inertial impaction, the carryover tends to hit mainly the leading edges of the pipes, and it hardly ever hits the lees. This is why carryover is dominant in the deposits of the superheater area. As the flue
gas travels, carryover is screened away by the heat transfer surfaces or it falls on the ash collectors. After this the fume particles acquire a larger share of the deposit compositions.
As a result, the composition of a fouling deposit varies from that of the carryover to the one of the fume as we approach the electrostatic precipitator, where the collected ashes may even not present carryover at all. Figure 2.2 highlights this phenomenon.
Figure 2.2: A typical composition of deposits of a KRB (Adamset al.,[3]). The carryover particle composition may be identified as the superheater composition. On the other hand, the ESP dust can be assumed to be essentially fume. It can be concluded from the figure that carryover is not a major deposit component beyond the superheater area.