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Evidentiality and related categories in four non-Slavonic languages of the Russian Federation : Bashkir, Even, Lezgi and Tatar

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Evidentiality and related categories

in four non-Slavonic languages of the Russian Federation:

Bashkir, Even, Lezgi and Tatar

Teija Greed

Academic dissertation to be publicly discussed, by due permission of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Helsinki, in Auditorium XII (Main Building),

on the 2nd of March, 2019, at 12 o’clock.

‡‡”ƒŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…•

‡’ƒ”–‡–‘ˆƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•

‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‡Ž•‹‹

ʹͲͳͻ

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Articles 1 and 4 of Part II have been included in the paperback version with permission from their respective publishers, and Articles 2 and 3 have been published in open access journals.

ISBN 978-951-51-4883-4 (paperback) ISBN 978-951-51-4884-1 (PDF) Printed by Unigrafia

Helsinki 2019

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Abstract

 –Š‹• –Š‡•‹• ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ† ‘–Š‡” ”‡Žƒ–‡† ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡• ‹ ˆ‘—”

‘ǦŽƒ˜‘‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡••’‘‡‹–Š‡—••‹ƒ ‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘ǣƒƒŠǦƒ‰Š‡•–ƒ‹ƒŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡

‡œ‰‹ǡ–™‘—”‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ƒ•Š‹”ƒ†ƒ–ƒ”ǡƒ†ƒ—‰—•‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡˜‡ǤŠ‡•–—†›

…‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ ˆ‘—” ’‡‡”Ǧ”‡˜‹‡™‡† ƒ”–‹…Ž‡• ƒ† ƒ ‹–”‘†—…–‘”› ƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ǥ ’”‡•‡– …‘‘

–”ƒ‹–•‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ǡƒ†‡š’Ž‘”‡–Š‡†‹•–‹…–‹˜‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š‘ˆ–Š‡ǡ

™Š‹Ž‡•‡––‹‰–Š‡’Š‡‘‡ƒ‹–Š‡‹”…”‘••ǦŽ‹‰—‹•–‹……‘–‡š–Ǥ

™‘”‡† ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡”Ǧ–‘‰—‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …‘•—Ž–ƒ–•ǡ •–—†‹‡† ‰”ƒƒ”• ƒ†

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•ǡƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‡†ƒ–—”ƒŽ–‡š–•‹’”‹–‡†ƒ†‡Ž‡…–”‘‹…ˆ‘”ǡ—–‹Ž‹•‹‰

‡š‹•–‹‰Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…‘”’‘”ƒˆ‘”–™‘‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǥ‡›ƒ•’‡…–‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ

™ƒ• …‘–‡š–—ƒŽ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ‘”†‡” –‘ ƒ……—”ƒ–‡Ž› ‹–‡”’”‡– –Š‡ ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… ƒ†

’”ƒ‰ƒ–‹……—‡•Ǥ

†‡ˆ‹‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ• ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ •‘—”…‡ –Š”‘—‰Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ

‡ƒ•ǡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ ƒ† ‡š’ƒ†‹‰ ‘ ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ† ȋʹͲͲͶȌǡ ‹ –Šƒ– †‹•…—•• ‘’–‹‘ƒŽ

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ –Š”‘—‰Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡ƒ• ‘ ƒ ’ƒ” ™‹–Š ‘„Ž‹‰ƒ–‘”› ‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǥ

Š‡‡›‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•‡ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†‹–Š‹••–—†›ƒ”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ›‹–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ

‘ˆ ‘Ǧˆ‹”•–Šƒ† ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǣ –Š‡ •‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡† ’”‘’‘•‹–‹‘ƒŽ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ• ‘Ǧ™‹–‡••‡†

ȋ”‡’‘”–‡†Ȍǡ Š‡ƒ”•ƒ›ǡ ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ ƒ† ƒ••—’–‹‘ǡ ƒ• ™‡ŽŽ ƒ• –Š‡ ‹ŽŽ‘…—–‹‘ƒ”› ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡Ǥ

Š‡ ƒ‹ ‘ˆ –Š‹• •–—†› ‹• –‘ …‘•‹†‡” –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ “—‡•–‹‘•ǣ ‘™ ƒ”‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

‡ƒ‹‰• …‘˜‡›‡† –Š”‘—‰Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡ƒ• ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǣ ƒ† Š‘™ †‘‡•

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ‹–‡”ƒ…– ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” ”‡Žƒ–‡† …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǫ ‘ ƒ•™‡” –Š‡•‡ “—‡•–‹‘•ǡ Šƒ˜‡

‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡† –Š‡ ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– •‡ƒ–‹… ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”• ˆ‘” –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ‹ –Š‡•‡

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡† –Š‡ ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•

ƒ† †‘ƒ‹•ǡ ƒ† ‡š’Ž‘”‡† –Š‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡ƒ‹‰• ‹˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹ –Š‡

•’Š‡”‡ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ •‡ƒ–‹…•Ǥ Š—• –Š‹• •–—†› ‡’Ž‘›‡† †‹˜‡”•‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡•ǣ

†‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡ƒ†–›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽǡ‘–Š‡‘‡Šƒ†ǡƒ†•›…Š”‘‹…ƒ††‹ƒ…Š”‘‹…ǡ‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”Ǥ

Š‡ ‡› …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡• ƒ† †‘ƒ‹• †‹•…‘˜‡”‡† –‘ ‹–‡”ƒ…– ™‹–Š ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘—”

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡–‡•‡Ǧƒ•’‡…–ǡȋ‡’‹•–‡‹…Ȍ‘†ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›ǡ•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ǡƒ††‹•…‘—”•‡Ǥ

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•‹•…”‘••ǦŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ›™‹†‡Ž›ƒ––‡•–‡†ǡƒŽ•‘‹ƒŽŽ–Š‡ˆ‘—”Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•–Š‡–‡•‡Ǧ

ƒ•’‡…– ˆ‘” …ƒ””›‹‰ –Š‡ ’‡”ˆ‡…–ǡ ‘” ”‡•—Ž–ƒ–‹˜‡ǡ ‡ƒ‹‰ ’Žƒ›• ƒ ‹’‘”–ƒ– ’ƒ”– ‹

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǥ ‘”–Š‡ˆ‘—”Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ–Š‡’‡”ˆ‡…–‡ƒ‹‰Šƒ•‡˜‘Ž˜‡†–‘‡š’”‡••

–Š‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡Ǥ  –Š‡ ’ƒ–Š ‘ˆ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’‡”ˆ‡…–ǡ ‘”

”‡•—Ž–ƒ–‹˜‡ǡ‡ƒ‹‰ǡ‡œ‰‹Šƒ•”‡ƒ‹‡†ƒ––Š‡•–ƒ‰‡‘ˆ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ǡ™Š‡”‡ƒ•ƒ•Š‹”ǡƒ–ƒ”

ƒ†–Š‡™‡•–‡”ƒ†…‡–”ƒŽ†‹ƒŽ‡…–•‘ˆ˜‡Šƒ˜‡’”‘‰”‡••‡†–‘‡š’”‡••‘Ǧ™‹–‡••‡†

ƒ†”‡’‘”–‡†‡ƒ‹‰•Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•™‡”‡ˆ‘—†–‘‹–‡”ƒ…–™‹–Š–Š‡†‘ƒ‹‘ˆ

†‹•…‘—”•‡‹–Šƒ–‹ƒ•Š‹”ǡƒ–ƒ”ƒ†˜‡–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽŽ›’‡”ˆ‡…–‡ƒ‹‰Šƒ•‡˜‘Ž˜‡†

–Š”‘—‰Š ‹ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ ƒ† ‘Ǧ™‹–‡••‡† ‡ƒ‹‰• –‘ ‡š’”‡•• ƒ †‹•…‘—”•‡ ˆ—…–‹‘ǣ ‹– ‹•

—•‡†ƒ•ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡–‡•‡ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ””‹‡•–Š‡ƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡’Ž‘–ˆ‘”™ƒ”†•Ǥ—…Šƒˆ‘”

„‡…‘‡•ƒƒ”‡”‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”‰‡”‡Ǥ

ŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—† –‘ †‹•’Žƒ› ‹”ƒ–‹˜‡‡ƒ‹‰•ǡ ‡œ‰‹ ƒ‹Ž›

™‹–Š’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǡ„—–ƒ•Š‹”ǡƒ–ƒ”ƒ†˜‡ƒŽ•‘ƒ•ƒ‡š–‡•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰

‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡”•–™Š‹Ž‡ ’‡”ˆ‡…– ‡ƒ‹‰Ǥ  –Š‡ –Š”‡‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ ‹ ˆ‹”•–Ǧ’‡”•‘ …‘–‡š–• –Š‡

‹ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰ ”‡…‡‹˜‡• ƒ ‹”ƒ–‹˜‡ ”‡ƒ†‹‰ǡ ™Š‹…Š †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡ –Š‡ ˆ‹”•–Ǧ’‡”•‘

‡ˆˆ‡…–ǡ‹•™‡ŽŽ†‘…—‡–‡†…”‘••ǦŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ›Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ†‹•…‘˜‡”‡†–Šƒ–˜‡†‹•’Žƒ›•

ƒ‹”ƒ–‹˜‡‡ƒ‹‰‹•‡…‘†Ǧ’‡”•‘…‘–‡š–•Ǥ–Š‹•Dz•‡…‘†Ǧ’‡”•‘‡ˆˆ‡…–dz–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”

”‡ƒ‹•–Š‡‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‘”‹‰‘ȋ—ʹͲͳͺȌ‘ˆ–Š‡—––‡”ƒ…‡ǡƒ•–Š‡˜‡”„ˆ‘”…ƒ””›‹‰–Š‡

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•‹‰ƒŽ•–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”ǯ•˜‹‡™’‘‹–Ǥ

Š‡ ƒ•Š‹” ‹ŽŽ‘…—–‹‘ƒ”› “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽǡ –›’‹…ƒŽŽ› •‹‰ƒŽŽ‹‰ †‹”‡…– •’‡‡…Šǡ

™ƒ•ˆ‘—†–‘ƒŽ•‘ƒ”•‡‹Ǧ†‹”‡…–•’‡‡…Š‹…‘Œ—…–‹‘™‹–Š…‘’Ž‡‡–Ǧ–ƒ‹‰˜‡”„•

‘ˆ…‘‰‹–‹‘ƒ†’‡”…‡’–‹‘Ǥ‡‹Ǧ†‹”‡…–•’‡‡…Š‹•ƒ•’‡‡…Š”‡’‘”––Šƒ–”‡–ƒ‹•‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡

…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…• ‘ˆ †‹”‡…– •’‡‡…Š „—– …‘˜‡›• ‹–‡”ƒŽ •’‡‡…Šǡ •—…Š ƒ• –Š‘—‰Š–• ƒ†

‹–‡–‹‘•ǤŠ—•‹–‹•–Š‡…‘‰‹–‹˜‡’”‘…‡••‹‰‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘„›–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”Ȁ‡š’‡”‹‡…‡”

–Šƒ–…‘‡•–‘–Š‡ˆ‘”‡‹•—…Š‡š’”‡••‹‘•ǣ•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›‹–‡”ƒ…–•™‹–Š‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡƒ•–Š‡

•’‡ƒ‡”‡’Ž‘›•†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–‹‡•–‘…‘˜‡›–Š‡†‡‰”‡‡‘ˆŠ‡”‹˜‘Ž˜‡‡–Ǥ

—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–› …ƒ ƒŽ•‘‡š–‡† ˆ—”–Š‡” –Šƒ –‘ –Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”Ȁ‡š’‡”‹‡…‡”ǡ ƒ• †‹•…‘˜‡”‡† ‹

ƒ•Š‹”ǣ ‹ …‘Œ—…–‹‘ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ˜‡”„ ‘ˆ …‘‰‹–‹‘ Ǯ‘™ǯ –Š‡ “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ …‘†‡• ƒŽ•‘ –Š‡

‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•’‡ƒ‡”ȋ•Ȍ‘ˆ–Š‡•’‡‡…Š”‡’‘”–ǡ‹ƒ††‹–‹‘–‘–Š‡…—””‡–•’‡ƒ‡”Ȁ‡š’‡”‹‡…‡”ǡ

–Š—•‡”‰‹‰–Š‡–™‘’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡•ǤŠ‹•‘–‹‘‘ˆDz—Ž–‹•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›dz…‘‡•…Ž‘•‡–‘™Šƒ–

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˜ƒ• ȋʹͲͲͷȌ …ƒŽŽ• Dz—Ž–‹’Ž‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡dzǡ –Š‡ ‡…‘†‹‰ ‘ˆ ‘”‡ –Šƒ ‘‡ ˜‹‡™’‘‹–

•‹—Ž–ƒ‡‘—•Ž›Ǥ

 …‘…Ž—•‹‘ǡ ’”‡•‡– ƒ ˜‹•—ƒŽ †‹•’Žƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ†

”‡Žƒ–‡† …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡• ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǥ Š‡ •‡–…Š •—‰‰‡•–• ‡™ ƒ˜‡—‡• ˆ‘” ˆ—”–Š‡”

…”‘••ǦŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…‡š’Ž‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…‘’Ž‡š‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘‘ˆ•‡ƒ–‹……ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•‹˜‘Ž˜‡†‹

Š—ƒ…‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘–Šƒ–ƒ™ƒ‹–•†‹•…‘˜‡”›Ǥ

Acknowledgements

Šƒ–ƒ†‹˜‡”•‡ƒ””ƒ›‘ˆŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•–Š‡”‡‹•‹–Š‡™‘”Ž†ǨŠƒ˜‡Šƒ†–Š‡Œ‘›‘ˆ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‰

™‹–Š ƒ ‰”‡ƒ– —„‡” ‘ˆ ’‡‘’Ž‡ •’‡ƒ‹‰ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‘–Š‡” –‘‰—‡•Ǥ Š‡•‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ Šƒ˜‡

‡ƒ„Ž‡†‡–‘ƒ’’”‡…‹ƒ–‡–Š‡ˆƒ•…‹ƒ–‹‰˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡•ƒ†…—Ž–—”‡•–Š‡”‡

‹•‹–Š‡™‘”Ž†Ǥ›‹‹–‹ƒŽ‹–‡”‡•–‹Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ž‡†‡–‘…Š‘‘•‡ƒ‘”‡‡š‘–‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡

ˆ‘” •–—†› ƒ– Š‹‰Š •…Š‘‘Žǣ —••‹ƒǤ ‘‡ ›‡ƒ”• Žƒ–‡” …‘’Ž‡–‡† › •–—†‹‡• ƒ– –Š‡

‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆƒ’‡”‡™‹–Šƒ‹Žƒ˜‘‹…Š‹Ž‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ

Š‡™‘”–‘‘‡ǡ›‰Ž‹•ŠŠ—•„ƒ†ƒ†‘—”–™‘›‘—‰…Š‹Ž†”‡–‘—••‹ƒ‹

–Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ͳͻͻͲ• Šƒ† –Š‡ ’”‹˜‹Ž‡‰‡ ‘ˆ •–—†›‹‰ ƒ–ƒ” ƒ– ƒœƒ –ƒ–‡ ‹˜‡”•‹–›ǡ ™Š‘•‡

ƒ–ƒ”ǦŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ †‡’ƒ”–‡– ™ƒ• –Š‡ ‹ –Š‡ …ƒ’ƒ„Ž‡ Šƒ†• ‘ˆ ”‘ˆ‡••‘” Ž‡”ƒ ƒˆ‹—ŽŽ‹ƒǤ

Š‡ †‹•–‹‰—‹•Š‡† ƒ–ƒ” ƒ…ƒ†‡‹…ǡ ƒ †‹”‡…–‘” ƒ– –Š‡ …ƒ†‡› ‘ˆ …‹‡…‡• ‘ˆ ƒœƒǡ

”‘ˆ‡••‘”‹”ˆƒ–›šƒ‹‡˜ǡƒ†ƒ›‘–Š‡”•’ƒ••‡†‘–Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‘˜‡ˆ‘”–Š‡‹”

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ǡ …—Ž–—”‡ ƒ† ’‡‘’Ž‡ –‘ ‡ ƒ† › ˆƒ‹Ž›Ǥ ‘‰ –Š‡ ƒ”‡ –Š‡ †‹•–‹‰—‹•Š‡†

–”ƒ•Žƒ–‘”ǡ–Š‡Žƒ–‡¡‹•ƒ—–‘˜ƒ†–Š‡’‘‡–ǡ–Š‡Žƒ–‡ ‹”ƒŒƒ›Œƒ–†‹‘˜ƒǤ™‘—Ž†Ž‹‡–‘

‡š’”‡••›•’‡…‹ƒŽ–Šƒ•–‘‘…‡–ÚŽƒœ—‰–ƒ•‹‘˜ƒ‘ˆƒœƒ–ƒ–‡‹˜‡”•‹–›ǡ™Š‘

‹›‡ƒ”Ž›†ƒ›•‘ˆƒ–ƒ”•–—†›–—–‘”‡†‡‹–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ǡ„‡…‘‹‰ƒ†‡ƒ”ˆƒ‹Ž›ˆ”‹‡†Ǥ

‘”‡ ”‡…‡–Ž›ǡ ڎƒœ —‰–ƒ•‹‘˜ƒ Š‡Ž’‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ˆ‘” › ƒ–ƒ”

ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ ƒ• › Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …‘•—Ž–ƒ–Ǥ •’‡…‹ƒŽ –ŠƒǦ›‘— ƒŽ•‘ ‰‘‡• –‘ –Š‡ ‡†‹–‘” ƒ†

–”ƒ•Žƒ–‘”ƒ‹Ž¡ƒŽ‹–‘˜ƒǡ™Š‘•‡™‹•†‘ƒ†‘™Ž‡†‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹–”‹…ƒ…‹‡•‘ˆŠ‡”‘–Š‡”

–‘‰—‡ ™ƒ• ‘ˆ ‰”‡ƒ– Š‡Ž’ ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ› ƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ǥ …Š‡”‹•Š –Š‡ ƒ› Š‘—”• ™‡

•’‡––‘‰‡–Š‡”†‹•…—••‹‰ƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ–‘’‹…•‹ƒ–ƒ”Ǥ

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Š‡‹’‡–—•ˆ‘”…‘–‹—‹‰›ˆ‘”ƒŽ•–—†‹‡•…ƒ‡ˆ”‘ƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ†‹”‡…–‹‘•Ǥ

ƒ‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Ž–‘›…‘ŽŽ‡ƒ‰—‡ƒ†ˆ”‹‡†”‹†ƒ—‹…™Š‘‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡†‡–‘†‡Ž˜‡

†‡‡’‡”‹–‘Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…•ǡ”‡•—Ž–‹‰‹›ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘–‘–Š‡‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‡Ž•‹‹–‘•–—†›

‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…•Ǥƒ†‡‡’Ž›‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Ž–‘”‘ˆ‡••‘” ”‡†ƒ”Ž••‘™Š‘‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡†‡

‘ –Š‹• ’ƒ–ŠǤ › ’ƒ”–Ǧ–‹‡ •–—†‹‡• ‹ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…• …‘‡…‡† ‹ ʹͲͲ͹ǡ ƒ† ƒˆ–‡”

…‘’Ž‡–‹‰ƒ•‡…‘†ƒ”›ǡ†‘…–‘”ƒŽ•–—†‹‡•„‡‰ƒ‹ʹͲͳͳǤ

ˆ–‡” ”‘ˆ‡••‘” ƒ”Ž••‘ǡ Šƒ† –Š‡ ’”‹˜‹Ž‡‰‡ ‘ˆ …‘–‹—‹‰ › •–—†‹‡• —†‡” –Š‡

•—’‡”˜‹•‹‘‘ˆƒ‘–Š‡”‘—–•–ƒ†‹‰Ž‹‰—‹•–ǡ”ƒ–‡”‹ƒ”—œ†‡˜ƒǤƒ†‡‡’Ž›‹†‡„–‡†

–‘Š‡”ˆ‘”Š‡”™‹ŽŽ‹‰‡••–‘„‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡™Š‡‡˜‡”‡‡†‡†Š‡Ž’ǡˆ‘”Š‡”‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡‡–

ƒ† ƒ†˜‹…‡ǡ ˆ‘” …‘‡…–‹‰ ‡ ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” Ž‹‰—‹•–•ǡ ƒ† ˆ‘” –Š‡ …”—…‹ƒŽŽ› ‹’‘”–ƒ–

…‘‡–••Š‡ƒ†‡‘›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ƒ––Š‡’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘•–ƒ‰‡•ǤŠ”‘—‰Š‘—––Š‡›‡ƒ”•‘ˆ›

•–—†‹‡• Šƒ˜‡ ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ† –Š‡ ‘’’‘”–—‹–› –‘ Ž‡ƒ” ˆ”‘ǡ ƒ† ‹–‡”ƒ…– ™‹–Šǡ ƒ› ‘–Š‡”

•–—†‡–•‘ˆŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…•‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›ƒ–”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”•‡‹ƒ”•Ž‡†„›”‘ˆ‡••‘””Š‘¡¡––¡ƒ†

”‘ˆ‡••‘” ƒ––‹ ‹‡•–ƒ‘ǡ ƒ• ™‡ŽŽ ƒ• –‘ ™‹†‡ › Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… Š‘”‹œ‘• –Š”‘—‰Š

’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘ƒ–™‘”•Š‘’•ƒ†…‘ˆ‡”‡…‡•Ǥ

‘”›–Š‡•‹•”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡†‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹ƒ–ƒ”ȋ”‡‡†ʹͲͲͻȌǡ‘–Š‡„ƒ•‹•‘ˆ

™Š‹…Š ™ƒ• Š‘‘—”‡† –‘ ”‡…‡‹˜‡ ƒ‹˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ –‘ ƒ––‡† ƒ ™‘”•Š‘’ ‘ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ–

ƒ‡• ‘‘ ‹˜‡”•‹–›ǡ —•–”ƒŽ‹ƒ ‹ ʹͲͳʹǡ Ž‡† „› ”‘ˆ‡••‘” Ž‡šƒ†”ƒ ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ† ƒ†

”‘ˆ‡••‘”ǤǤǤ‹š‘ǤŠ‹•™‘”•Š‘’”‡•—Ž–‡†‹ƒ„‘‘The Grammar of Knowledge ȋ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†Ƭ‹š‘ʹͲͳͶȌǡƒ†…‘–ƒ‹•–Š‡ˆ‹”•–ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‹•–Š‡•‹•ǤŠ‡’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘

‹–Š‡™‘”•Š‘’ǡƒ†–Š‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘™‹–Š–ƒŽ‡–‡†Ž‹‰—‹•–•ˆ”‘ƒŽŽ‘˜‡”–Š‡™‘”Ž†‰ƒ˜‡

‡ ƒ††‡† ‘–‹˜ƒ–‹‘ ‹ › ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‹ ‘–Š‡” ‘ǦŽƒ˜‘‹… Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ —••‹ƒ

‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

™‘—Ž† Ž‹‡ –‘ ‡š–‡† ƒ •’‡…‹ƒŽ –ŠƒǦ›‘— –‘ ƒŽŽ › Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …‘•—Ž–ƒ–•Ǥ 

ƒ††‹–‹‘ –‘ –Š‡ ƒŽ”‡ƒ†› ‡–‹‘‡† ڎƒœ —‰–ƒ•‹‘˜ƒ ƒ† ƒ‹Ž¡ ƒŽ‹–‘˜ƒǡ ™Š‘ Š‡Ž’‡†

™‹–Š –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ‘ˆ › ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ ‘ ƒ–ƒ” ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ȋ”‡‡† ʹͲͳͶ ȋʹͲͳ͸ȌȌǡ ƒ ‰”‡ƒ–Ž›

‹†‡„–‡† –‘ –Š‡ †‹•–‹‰—‹•Š‡† ‡œ‰‹ ™”‹–‡” ”„‡ ƒ”†ƒ•Šǡ ƒ• ™‡ŽŽ ƒ• –‘ –Š‡ –”ƒ•Žƒ–‘”

ˆ‡Ž‹Œƒ‹”˜‡”†‹Œ‡˜ƒˆ‘”–Š‡‹”‹˜ƒŽ—ƒ„Ž‡Š‡Ž’™‹–Š–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ—•‡†‹›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

…‘†‹‰‹‡œ‰‹ȋ”‡‡†ʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ‡š–‡†–Šƒ•–‘ÚŽƒœ—āƒš‡–‘˜ƒƒ†–‘–Š‡

™”‹–‡”• ڎƒ”ƒ —‰–ƒ•‹‘˜ƒ ƒ† ڎ•‹”¡ ‹œœƒ–—ŽŽ‹ƒ ‹ –Š‡ ”‘Ž‡ –Š‡› ’Žƒ›‡† ‹ –Š‡

’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘–Š‡ƒ•Š‹”“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ȋ”‡‡†ʹͲͳͺȌǤ

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‹–Š › ˆ‹ƒŽ ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ › •‹…‡”‡ –Šƒ• ‰‘ ˆ‹”•– ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ –‘ › …‘ŽŽ‡ƒ‰—‡ •–Š‡”

—”‰Š‡””ǤŠƒ†–Š‡’”‹˜‹Ž‡‰‡‘ˆƒ••‹•–‹‰Š‡”ƒ•‘‡‘ˆŠ‡”•—’‡”˜‹•‘”•ˆ‘”Š‡”‘—–•–ƒ†‹‰

–Š‡•‹•‘–Š‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•–”—…–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘–‘ƒ‹‰•‘‡

‘ˆŠ‡”‘™†ƒ–ƒƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡–‘‡ǡ•–Š‡”’—–‡‹–‘—…Š™‹–ŠŽƒƒƒšƒ”‘˜ƒǡ™Š‘„‡…ƒ‡

› ˜‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …‘•—Ž–ƒ–Ǥ † •‘ › –Šƒ• ‰‘ ƒŽ•‘ –‘ Žƒƒ ƒšƒ”‘˜ƒ ˆ‘” Š‡”

…‘–”‹„—–‹‘‹–Š‡’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡†ƒ–ƒ‘ˆ›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘–Š‡’‡”ˆ‡…–ƒ†

Š‘™‹–ƒ‹ˆ‡•–•‹–•‡Žˆ‹˜‡ȋ”‡‡†ʹͲͳͻȌǤ

…‘‡…–‹‘™‹–Š–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡•‹•ǡ™‹•Š–‘‡š–‡†›•‹…‡”‡–Šƒ•–‘

›’”‡Ž‹‹ƒ”›‡šƒ‹‡”ƒ†‘’’‘‡–”‘ˆ‡••‘”†”‡ŒƒŽ…Š—‘˜ˆ‘”Š‹•…‘•–”—…–‹˜‡

ˆ‡‡†„ƒ…ƒ†‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡‡––‘†‡Ž˜‡†‡‡’‡”‹–Š‡ƒ––‡”•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ǤƒƒŽ•‘†‡‡’Ž›

‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Ž –‘ ”‘ˆ‡••‘” ƒ•’‡” ‘›‡ǡ › ‘–Š‡” ’”‡Ž‹‹ƒ”› ‡šƒ‹‡”ǡ ˆ‘” •–‹—Žƒ–‹‰ ›

–Š‹‹‰ –‘ ™‹†‡” –Š‡‘”‡–‹…ƒŽ ‹••—‡•Ǥ Š‡ ’”‡Ž‹‹ƒ”› ‡šƒ‹‡”•ǯ •—‰‰‡•–‹‘• ƒ†

…‘‡–• ‡ƒ„Ž‡† ‡ „‘–Š –‘ …Žƒ”‹ˆ› › ‘™ Ž‹‡ ‘ˆ –Š‘—‰Š– ƒ† ‹’”‘˜‡ –Š‡

’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–‘’‹…Ǥ

˜‡” –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ Šƒ˜‡ Šƒ† –Š‡ ‘’’‘”–—‹–› ‘ˆ ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‰ ™‹–Š ƒ† ‡Œ‘›‹‰ –Š‡

ˆ”‹‡†•Š‹’‘ˆƒ›’‡‘’Ž‡™Š‘Šƒ˜‡Šƒ†ƒ•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹’ƒ…–‘‡ǡ›•–—†‹‡•ƒ†›

Ž‹ˆ‡ǯ•’ƒ–ŠǤ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡”•ǡ•‘‡Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”‡ƒ‹‰ˆ—Ž

†‹•…—••‹‘• ƒ† Šƒ˜‡ ‘ˆˆ‡”‡† ‹˜ƒŽ—ƒ„Ž‡ ƒ†˜‹…‡ǡ ‘” •Šƒ”‡† –Š‡‹” Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… ˆ‹†‹‰• ™‹–Š

‡Ǣ‘–Š‡”•Šƒ˜‡‹•’‹”‡†‡™‹–Š–Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”‘™Ž‹ˆ‡ƒ†‡š’‡”‹‡…‡•Ǥ…ƒŽ‹•–

‘Ž› „—– ƒ ˆ‡™ ‘ˆ –Š‡ǣ ƒ”‹ƒ‡ ‡‡”Ž‡Ǧ‘‘”ǡ ‹ƒƒ ‘”‡”ǡ ƒ”‰ƒ”‡– ‘•–‡”ǡ –Š‡ Žƒ–‡

‹… ‘•–‡”ǡ ‘‹ƒ ڊŽ‹‰ǡ ”‹… ‘‡•ǡ ™› ‘‡•ǡ ”™‹ ‘‡ǡ ƒ–Œƒ òŽŽ‡”ǡ

‡‡˜‹°˜‡‡””ƒ—Ž–ǡƒ‹Ž›ƒŠ‹Ž‹’’‘˜ƒǡƒ”Œƒ—‘–•ƒŽƒ‹‡ǡ‹‹––ƒƒ—‹ǡ‹‘ƒ—‹ǡڈ¡”

ƒƒ†”ƒš‹‘˜ƒ†ƒ—Žƒ—‘”‹‡Ǥ™‘—Ž†ƒŽ•‘Ž‹‡–‘–Šƒ›™‹†‡”ˆƒ‹Ž›ǡ‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›

›•‹•–‡”‹‹––ƒ—–‹Žƒǡˆ‘”–Š‡‹”‹–‡”‡•–ƒ†•—’’‘”–Ǥ

‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ™ƒ––‘‡š’”‡••›†‡‡’‡•–‰”ƒ–‹–—†‡–‘›†‡ƒ”Š—•„ƒ† ‹…Šƒ‡Žǡ›

…‘•–ƒ–‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡”ƒ†‡–Š—•‡”Ǥƒƒƒœ‡†ƒ–Š‹•—–‹”‹‰†‡†‹…ƒ–‹‘–‘Š‹•”‘Ž‡ƒ•

› Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …Š‡…‡”ǡ ƒ† ˆ‘” ’ƒ–‹‡–Ž› ‰‘‹‰ –Š”‘—‰Š ƒŽŽ › ™”‹–‹‰• ™‹–Š Š‡Ž’ˆ—Ž

•—‰‰‡•–‹‘•ˆ‘”‹’”‘˜‡‡–Ǥ‹•…‘–”‹„—–‹‘–‘›™‘”Šƒ•ƒŽ•‘„‡‡•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹–Š‡

’”‘…‡•• ‘ˆ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ƒ† ™”‹–‹‰ǣ ƒ› ƒ –‹‡ ™‘—Ž† ƒ””‹˜‡ ƒ– –Š‡ †‹‡” –ƒ„Ž‡ ™‹–Šƒ

Ž‹‰—‹•–‹……‘—†”—‰‘‹‰”‘—†‹›‹†ǡƒ†Š‡™‘—Ž†Š‡Ž’‡…Žƒ”‹ˆ››–Š‹‹‰ǡ

‘” †‹•‡–ƒ‰Ž‡ ‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ’—”•—‹– ‘ˆ ›‡– ƒ‘–Š‡” ‹–‡”‡•–‹‰ǡ „—– –ƒ‰‡–‹ƒŽǡ †‡–ƒ‹Ž

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”‡Žƒ–‹‰–‘–Š‡•‡ˆƒ•…‹ƒ–‹‰Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǥƒ‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Žˆ‘”Š‹•‡‡‡••–‘–Š‹Dz‘—–•‹†‡–Š‡

„‘šdzƒ†ˆ‘”Š‡Ž’‹‰‡•–‡’‹–‘‡™ƒ˜‡—‡•‘ˆ†‹•…‘˜‡”›ǢƒŽ•‘ˆ‘”Š‹•‰‡‡”ƒŽ–‡…Š‹…ƒŽ

ƒ••‹•–ƒ…‡Ǥ › –Šƒ• ‰‘ ƒŽ•‘ –‘ ‘—” –™‘ ”‡ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡ …Š‹Ž†”‡ǡ ƒǦ‹‹•ƒ ƒ†

Š”‹•–‘’Š‡”ǡ ™Š‘ Šƒ˜‡ •Šƒ”‡† –‘‰‡–Š‡” ™‹–Š –Š‡‹” ’ƒ”‡–• –Š‡ Œ‘› ‘ˆ Ž‡ƒ”‹‰ –‘ •’‡ƒ

ƒ–ƒ”ƒ†—••‹ƒǡ‹ƒ††‹–‹‘–‘–Š‡‹”‘–Š‡”ǯ•ƒ†ˆƒ–Š‡”ǯ•–‘‰—‡•ǡ ‹‹•Šƒ†‰Ž‹•Šǡ

ƒ†™Š‘Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ‰”‡ƒ–‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡‡––‘‡–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–››‡ƒ”•‘ˆ•–—†›Ǥ

ƒ•– „—– ‘– Ž‡ƒ•– ™ƒ– –‘ ‡š’”‡•• › ‰”ƒ–‹–—†‡ –‘ › ‡ƒ˜‡Ž› ƒ–Š‡” ™Š‘

‹•–‹ŽŽ‡† ‹ ‡ ƒ ’ƒ••‹‘ ˆ‘” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ƒ† ‰ƒ˜‡ ‡ –Š‡ ’‡”•‡˜‡”ƒ…‡ –‘ •‡‡ –Š‹• •–—†›

’”‘‰”ƒ‡–Š”‘—‰Š–‘…‘’Ž‡–‹‘Ǥ‡…Š‘–Š‡™‘”†•‘ˆ–Š‡„‹„Ž‹…ƒŽ•ƒ‰‡™Š‘•ƒ‹†ǡDz‹–Š

‘†ƒ”‡™‹•†‘ƒ†•–”‡‰–ŠǢŠ‡Šƒ•…‘—•‡Žƒ†—†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰dzȋ‘„ͳʹǣͳ͵ȌǤ

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Contents

„•–”ƒ…–ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ‹ …‘™Ž‡†‰‡‡–•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ ‹‹‹

PART I: Introductory Article

ͳǤ‘ƒŽǡ‡–Š‘†•ƒ††ƒ–ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡•‹•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ ͳ ʹǤƒ…‰”‘—†–‘‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ͷ ʹǤͳǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†…‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͷ ʹǤʹǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǣŠ‹•–‘”›ƒ††‹ˆˆ‡”‡–˜‹‡™’‘‹–•ǤǤǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ ͸

͵Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹”‡Žƒ–‹‘–‘‘–Š‡”…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ƒ††‘ƒ‹•ˆ”‘ƒ–Š‡‘”‡–‹…ƒŽ

’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͳʹ

͵ǤͳǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•ƒ•‡š–‡•‹‘•‘ˆ–‡•‡Ǧƒ•’‡…–ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ ͳ͵

͵ǤʹǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›ƒ†’‡”•‘ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ ͳͶ

͵Ǥ͵Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‡’‹•–‡‹…‘†ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ ͳͷ

͵ǤͶǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†–Š‡†‘ƒ‹‘ˆ†‹•…‘—”•‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ͳͻ

͵ǤͷǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†•…‘’‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͳͻ

͵Ǥ͸Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹•‡ƒ–‹…•’ƒ…‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ʹͲ ͶǤ„•–”ƒ…–•‘ˆƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ ʹͳ ͷǤ„”‹‡ˆ–›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ…‘’ƒ”‹•‘‘ˆƒ–ƒ”ǡƒ•Š‹”ǡ‡œ‰‹ƒ†˜‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ʹ͹

͸Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†‘–Š‡”…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ƒ††‘ƒ‹•‹ƒ•Š‹”ǡ˜‡ǡ‡œ‰‹ƒ†

ƒ–ƒ”ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ʹͺ

͸ǤͳǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†–‡•‡Ǧƒ•’‡…–ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ʹͻ

͸ǤʹǤ‡ˆƒ—Ž–‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•ƒ†–Š‡‹”‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘™‹–Š‘–Š‡”…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͵ͷ

͸Ǥ͵Ǥ—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ǡ•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ƒ†–Š‡•‡ƒ–‹…–›’‡‘ˆ˜‡”„•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ ͵͹

͸Ǥ͵ǤͳǤ—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡tipǡ•‡‹Ǧ†‹”‡…–•’‡‡…Šǡ•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ƒ†—Ž–‹•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ǥǤǤǤ ͵ͺ

͸Ǥ͵ǤʹǤ—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡tipƒ•ƒƒ†˜‡”„‹ƒŽƒ”‡”ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ ͶͲ

͸Ǥ͵Ǥ͵ǤŠ‡ƒ‹ˆ—…–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡tipƒ†–Š‡‹”†‹•–‹…–‹˜‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǥǤ Ͷͳ

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˜‹‹‹

͸Ǥ͵ǤͶǤ›–ƒ…–‹…•–ƒ–—•‘ˆ–Š‡•’‡‡…Š”‡’‘”–‹•‡‹Ǧ†‹”‡…–•’‡‡…Šǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ Ͷʹ

͸ǤͶǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†‡’‹•–‡‹…‘†ƒŽ‹–›ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ Ͷͷ

͸ǤͷǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›ǡƒ†’‡”•‘ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ Ͷͺ

͸ǤͷǤͳǤ ‹”•–Ǧ’‡”•‘‡ˆˆ‡…–ƒ†‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›‹˜‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ Ͷͻ

͸ǤͷǤʹǤ‡…‘†Ǧ’‡”•‘‡ˆˆ‡…–ƒ†‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›‹˜‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ ͷͲ

͸Ǥ͸Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ††‹•…‘—”•‡ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ ͷ͵

͸Ǥ͸ǤͳǤ‹•…‘—”•‡‰‡”‡•‹ƒ–ƒ”ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ͷͶ

͸Ǥ͸ǤʹǤƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡ˆ—…–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡˜‡’‡”ˆ‡…–ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͷͷ

͸Ǥ͹Ǥ—ƒ”›‘ˆ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‡†…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ƒ†

†‘ƒ‹•‹ƒ•Š‹”ǡ˜‡ǡ‡œ‰‹ƒ†ƒ–ƒ”ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤǤ ͷͺ

͹Ǥ‘…Ž—•‹‘ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥ ͸Ͳ

„„”‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤǤ ͸ʹ

‡ˆ‡”‡…‡•ǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǥǤ ͸Ͷ

PART II: Articles

‹•–‘ˆ”–‹…Ž‡•

”–‹…Ž‡ͳǣŠ‡‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‘™Ž‡†‰‡‹ƒ–ƒ”

”–‹…Ž‡ʹǣ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ…‘†‹‰‹‡œ‰‹

”–‹…Ž‡͵ǣŠ‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡‹ƒ•Š‹”

”–‹…Ž‡Ͷǣ ”‘’‡”ˆ‡…––‘ƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡–‡•‡ǣŠ‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆƒ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

‡ƒ‹‰‡šƒ‹‡†‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ›ƒ†‹–Š‡˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡

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PART I:

Introductory Article

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ͳ

1. Goal, methods and data of the thesis

Š‹•–Š‡•‹•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡•–Š‡‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‡†…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•‹ˆ‘—”‘Ǧ

Žƒ˜‘‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•‹–Š‡—••‹ƒ ‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒ†…‘•‹•–•‘ˆˆ‘—”‹†‡’‡†‡–ƒ…ƒ†‡‹…

ƒ”–‹…Ž‡• ƒ† ƒ ‹–”‘†—…–‘”› ƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ǥ Š”‘—‰Š › ™‘” ƒ† •–—†‹‡• ‹ –Š‡ —”‹… ƒ–ƒ”

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡„‡…ƒ‡ˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•––‹‡ƒ™ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ–‡‰‘”›‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǤŠ‹•Ž‡†‡–‘

‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡–Š‹•’Š‡‘‡‘ǡ‹‹–‹ƒŽŽ›‹ƒ–ƒ”ǡ„—–Žƒ–‡”ƒŽ•‘‹•‘‡‘–Š‡”‘ǦŽƒ˜‘‹…

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• •’‘‡ ‹ –Š‡ —••‹ƒ ‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡ ƒŠǦƒ‰Š‡•–ƒ‹ƒ ‡œ‰‹ †”‡™ ›

ƒ––‡–‹‘ ƒ• ƒ …Ž‘•‡Ž› ”‡Žƒ–‡† Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ ‰Š—Ž Šƒ† „‡‡ †‡‘•–”ƒ–‡† „› ƒŒ•ƒ ƒ†

‡”†ƒ‘˜ƒ ȋʹͲͲʹȌ –‘ Šƒ˜‡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‘’’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ’ƒ•–Ǧ–‡•‡ ˆ‘”•Ǥ  ƒ•Š‹”ǡ ƒ

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…Ž‘•‡Ž›”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘ƒ–ƒ”ǡ–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡–—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ƒ”‡”tip‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›

‹ …‘‡…–‹‘ ™‹–Š ‘Ǧ†‹”‡…– •’‡‡…Š ’”‘˜‡† ƒ ”‡™ƒ”†‹‰ –‘’‹…Ǥ ƒ•–Ž›ǡ ƒŽ…Š—‘˜ǯ•

ȋʹͲͲͲȌ ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ †‹•…—••‹‰ ’‡”ˆ‡…– ‹ –Š‡ ‘”–ŠǦ—‰—•‹… ˜‡ ƒ†‡ ‡ ”‡…‘‰‹•‡ –Š‡

…‘‡…–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ ’‡”ˆ‡…–ǡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ ƒ† ‹–• ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ…‡ ‹ †‹•…‘—”•‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š

‰ƒ˜‡‘……ƒ•‹‘–‘†‡Ž˜‡‘”‡†‡‡’Ž›‹–‘–Š‹•”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’‹–Š‡˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǥ

—”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ –Š‡•‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ Ž‡•• •–—†‹‡† ‹ –Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ ‘ˆ

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‡†…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǡƒ†”‡’”‡•‡––Š”‡‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ˆƒ‹Ž‹‡•ǤŠ‡›

†‹•’Žƒ› ƒ† ‹ŽŽ—•–”ƒ–‡ ƒ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ƒ† ”‡Žƒ–‡† ’Š‡‘‡ƒǡ ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‹‰

•‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡•–Šƒ–ƒ‡–Š‡‘”‡ƒ‡ƒ„Ž‡–‘…‘’ƒ”‹•‘ǡ™Š‹Ž‡ƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡ ‡šŠ‹„‹–‹‰

†‹•–‹…–‹˜‡ …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‘’‡—’ ’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–‹‡• ˆ‘” ƒ‡š’Ž‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ ˜ƒ”‹‡–› ‘ˆ

†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’Š‡‘‡ƒǤŠ‡ˆ‘…ƒŽ’‘‹–•…Š‘•‡ˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ‘—””‡•‡ƒ”…Šƒ”–‹…Ž‡•”‡’”‡•‡–Ž‡••

•–—†‹‡†–‘’‹…•”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ‡›‘–‹˜ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡…—””‡–•–—†›Šƒ•„‡‡–‘

†‹•…‘˜‡”ǡ ‡š’Ž‘”‡ ƒ† †‡•…”‹„‡ …‘‡…–‹‘• „‡–™‡‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡• ƒ†

†‘ƒ‹•ǡ–‘•‡‡–‘ˆ‹†‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘•ƒ•–‘Š‘™–Š‡›”‡Žƒ–‡–‘‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ǡƒ†–‘†”ƒ™–Š‡

†‹•…‘˜‡”‹‡•–‘‰‡–Š‡”•‘ƒ•–‘’”‡•‡––Š‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘•‹ƒŠ‘Ž‹•–‹…ƒ‡”Ǥ

Ž–Š‘—‰Š ƒ–ƒ” ‹• –Š‡ •‡…‘† ‘•– ™‹†‡Ž› •’‘‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ ‹ –Š‡ —••‹ƒ

‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† —”‹… Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ ‹ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ‘™ –‘ Šƒ˜‡ –Š‡ …ƒ–‡‰‘”› ‘ˆ

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ȋ•‡‡ǡ ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ‘Šƒ•‘ǯ• ȋʹͲͲͲȌ †‹•…—••‹‘ ‘ —”‹… ‹†‹”‡…–‹˜‹–›Ȍǡ

ƒ–ƒ”Šƒ•‘Ž›”‡…‡–Ž›„‡‰—–‘”‡…‡‹˜‡ƒ––‡–‹‘‹–Š‹•ƒ”‡ƒȋ•‡‡•šƒ‘˜ƒ‡–ƒŽǤʹͲͲ͹

ƒ† ƒ–‡˜‘•‘˜ ʹͲͲ͹ȌǤ ƒ•Š‹” ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ƒ ™‹†‡Ž› •’‘‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ ™‹–Š ‘˜‡” ‘‡ ‹ŽŽ‹‘

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•’‡ƒ‡”•ǡ™‹–Š‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•‡–‹‘‡†‹–Š‡‘ˆˆ‹…‹ƒŽ‰”ƒƒ”ǡ„—–‘–Š‡”™‹•‡‘–

™‹†‡Ž›”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡†Ǥ•ˆ‘”‡œ‰‹ǡƒŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡™‹–Š…ƒǤ͸ͲͲǡͲͲͲ•’‡ƒ‡”•ǡ‹–Šƒ•„‡‡•–—†‹‡†

Ž‡••–Šƒƒ…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž›•ƒŽŽ‡””‡Žƒ–‡†Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡‰Š—Žȋ•‡‡ƒŒ•ƒƬ‡”†ƒ‘˜ƒʹͲͲʹȌǤ

˜‡†‹ˆˆ‡”•˜‡”›…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›ˆ”‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”–Š”‡‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•‡šƒ‹‡†‹–Š‡–Š‡•‹•ǡ„‡‹‰ƒ

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡™‹–Šƒ—…Š•ƒŽŽ‡”‡–Š‹…’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆʹʹǡͲͲͲǡ‘Ž›ƒ“—ƒ”–‡”‘ˆ™Š‘•’‡ƒ

–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǥ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹–Š‹•Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Šƒ•„‡‡”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡†‹‘”‡†‡–ƒ‹Ž„‘–Š‹–Š‡

™‘”•‘ˆƒŽ…Š—‘˜ȋʹͲͲͲȌƒ†‹’’‡ŽȋʹͲͳʹȌǤ

Š‡ ‘˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š “—‡•–‹‘ ‘ˆ › –Š‡•‹• ‹• –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ǣ ‘™ ƒ”‡

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•ǡ–Šƒ–‹•ǡ‡š’”‡••‹‘•‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‘—”…‡ǡ‘”•‘—”…‡‘ˆ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ …‘˜‡›‡†–Š”‘—‰Š‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ‡ƒ•‹ƒ•‡Ž‡…–‹‘‘ˆ‘ǦŽƒ˜‘‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡••’‘‡‹

–Š‡—••‹ƒ ‡†‡”ƒ–‹‘ǫ•‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡŽ‹‡‘–Š‡”Ž‹‰—‹•–‹……ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǡ†‘‡•‘–ˆ—…–‹‘

‹ ‹•‘Žƒ–‹‘ǡ –Š‹• Ž‡† –‘ ƒ‘–Š‡” “—‡•–‹‘ǣ ‘™ †‘‡• ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ‹–‡”ƒ…– ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡”

”‡Žƒ–‡† …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǫ ‘” –Š‡ ’—”’‘•‡ ‘ˆ ƒ•™‡”‹‰ –Š‡•‡ “—‡•–‹‘•ǡ › ‰‘ƒŽ ‹•ǣ ͳǤ –‘

‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–•‡ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•ˆ‘”–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•

—†‡”•–—†›ǡʹǤ–‘‡š’Ž‘”‡–Š‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›™‹–Š‘–Š‡”ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•

ƒ††‘ƒ‹•ǡƒ†͵Ǥ–‘‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ‹‰•‹˜‘Ž˜‡†‹

–Š‡ •’Š‡”‡ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ •‡ƒ–‹…•Ǥ Š‡ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š ‡’Ž‘›‡† ‹• „‘–Š –›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ƒ†

†‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡† ˆ”‘ „‘–Š •›…Š”‘‹… ƒ† †‹ƒ…Š”‘‹…

˜‹‡™’‘‹–•Ǥ

Š‡ ‡’Šƒ•‹• ‘ˆ –Š‹• •–—†› ‹• ‘ ˜‡”„ ˆ‘”•ǡ „—– ‘–Š‡” ‘ǦŽ‡š‹…ƒŽͳ ‡ƒ• ‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘ȋ•—…Šƒ•’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•Ȁ…Ž‹–‹…•Ȍƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ȋ•‡‡ǡ‹ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡†‹•…—••‹‘

‘ƒ–ƒ”Ž‡š‹…ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‘—”…‡‹”‡‡†ȋʹͲͳͶȋʹͲͳ͸Ȍǣͺ͵Ȃͺ͸ȌȌǤ ‘”ƒ

ˆ‘” –‘ „‡ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ǡ ‹– ‡‡†• –‘ Šƒ˜‡ ƒ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰Ǥ Š‹• ‡ƒ‹‰ †‘‡• ‘–

‡‡†–‘„‡ƒ†‡ˆƒ—Ž–‡ƒ‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡”‹“—‡•–‹‘ǡ„—–‹–…ƒ„‡ƒ‡ƒ‹‰‡š–‡•‹‘

‘ˆƒ‘–Š‡”‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ…ƒ–‡‰‘”›ǤŠ”‘—‰Š”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‘ˆ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ‡š’Ž‘”‡–Š‡

‘”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ’‹…–—”‡™‹–Š–Š‡‰‘ƒŽ‘ˆ’”‘’‘•‹‰™Š‡”‡‡ƒ…ŠŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ˆ‹–•‹–‘–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ

•‡ƒ–‹… •’ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡ ‡’‹•–‡‹… ‘†ƒŽ‹–›ǡ ‹”ƒ–‹˜‹–›ǡ ƒ† ‘–Š‡” ”‡Žƒ–‡†

‡ƒ‹‰•Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ‡˜‡–Š‘—‰Š›ƒ‹‹•ˆ‘”ƒŠ‘Ž‹•–‹…’‘”–”ƒ›ƒŽǡ‘Ž›ƒ–ƒ”ȋ”–‹…Ž‡ͳȌǡ

ƒ†–‘ƒŽ‡••‡”†‡‰”‡‡ƒ•Š‹”ȋ”–‹…Ž‡͵Ȍǡ”‡…‡‹˜‡ƒˆ—ŽŽ‡”–”‡ƒ–‡–‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ˜ƒŽ—‡•Ǥ ‘” –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”• †‘ ‘– ‡†‡ƒ˜‘—” –‘ …‘˜‡” ƒŽŽ ’‘••‹„Ž‡ ƒ”‡”• …‘˜‡›‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

ͳ‡‡ˆ—”–Š‡”†‹•…—••‹‘‘–Š‡†‹•–‹…–‹‘Ž‡š‹…ƒŽȂ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ‹‡…–‹‘ʹǤͳǤ

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͵

‡ƒ‹‰•ǡ „—– …‘…‡–”ƒ–‡ ‘ ƒ•’‡…–• ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ™Š‹…Š ƒ’’‡ƒ” –‘ „‡

’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–Ǥ‘‰•––Š‡•‡ƒ•’‡…–•ǡ‹–”‘†—…‡ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽ•‡ƒ–‹…†‹‡•‹‘‘ˆ

•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ǡƒ††‹•…—••‹–• ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’™‹–Š‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ ‘”•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ

ƒŽ•‘ ƒ‡ ƒ ’”‘’‘•‹–‹‘ ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ ’ƒ–Š ‘ˆ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ”‡”• ‹˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹ –Š‡

‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡ƒ‹‰•Ǥ

Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ’‡‡”Ǧ”‡˜‹‡™‡†ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡–Š‡•‹•ƒ”‡–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ǣ

ͳǤ ”‡‡†ǡ ‡‹Œƒ ʹͲͳͶ ȋʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ Š‡ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‘ˆ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ‹ ƒ–ƒ”Ǥ ǣ ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǡ

Ž‡šƒ†”ƒ Ǥ Ƭ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥ ‹š‘ ȋ‡†•ȌǤThe Grammar of KnowledgeǤ šˆ‘”†ǣ šˆ‘”†

‹˜‡”•‹–›”‡••Ǥ͸ͻȂͺͺǤ

ʹǤ ”‡‡†ǡ ‡‹Œƒ ʹͲͳ͹Ǥ ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ …‘†‹‰ ‹ ‡œ‰‹ǤLanguages of the Caucasus. ‘Ž—‡ ʹǤ

˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ƒ–Š––’•ǣȀȀ‡•…Š‘Žƒ”•Š‹’Ǥ‘”‰Ȁ—…Ȁ‹–‡ȀͲ™ͷͻœͷ–ͶǤ

͵Ǥ ”‡‡†ǡ ‡‹Œƒ ʹͲͳͺǤ Š‡ “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ‹ ƒ•Š‹”ǤStudia Orientalia Electronicaǡ‘Ž—‡ ͸ǡ ʹ͵ȂͷͷǤ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ƒ–Š––’•ǣȀȀŒ‘—”ƒŽǤˆ‹Ȁ•–‘”‡Ȁƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ȁ˜‹‡™Ȁ͸ͻ͸ͺͷǤ

ͶǤ”‡‡†ǡ‡‹ŒƒʹͲͳͻȋ‹’”‡••ȌǤ ”‘’‡”ˆ‡…––‘ƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡–‡•‡ǣŠ‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆƒ

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰ ‡šƒ‹‡† ‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ› ƒ† ‹ –Š‡ ˜‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ǤStudies in Language ͶʹǣͶǡͻʹ͵Ȃͻ͸͸Ǥ‹ŽŽ„‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡˜‹ƒŠ––’•ǣȀȀ™™™Ǥ„‡Œƒ‹•Ǥ…‘Ȁ…ƒ–ƒŽ‘‰Ȁ•ŽǤ

ƒ…Šƒ”–‹…Ž‡†‹•…—••‡•‘‡‘”‘”‡ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘‹–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ǡ™Š‹Ž‡

‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡–‘ƒ‘”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ–‘’‹…–Šƒ–‹••‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ––‘–Šƒ–’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”

•–—†›ǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡™Š‹Ž‡”–‹…Ž‡ͳ’”‡•‡–•ƒ‰‡‡”ƒŽ’‹…–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‘™Ž‡†‰‡

‹ ƒ–ƒ”ǡ ƒ† …‘…‡–”ƒ–‡• ‘ ‡ƒ‹‰• ‡š’”‡••‡† ™‹–Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‡”•ǡ –Š‡

†‹•…—••‹‘ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ‡š’ƒ†‡† –‘ Ž‡š‹…ƒŽ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‘ˆ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡Ǥ ”–‹…Ž‡ ʹ ‘ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

…‘†‹‰‹‡œ‰‹†‹ˆˆ‡”•ˆ”‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹–Šƒ––Š‡‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‡œ‰‹‹•

…‘’ƒ”‡† ™‹–Š –Šƒ– ‘ˆ ƒ ”‡Žƒ–‡† Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ ‰Š—ŽǤ ”–‹…Ž‡ ͵ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡• –Š‡ “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ‹

ƒ•Š‹”ǡ ƒ† ‡šƒ‹‡• –Š‡ •‡ƒ–‹… †‹‡•‹‘ ‘ˆ •—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ǡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›

‹–”‘†—…‡† ‹ ”–‹…Ž‡ ͳǡ ƒ† ‹–• ‹’‘”–ƒ– ”‘Ž‡ ‹ –Š‡ ’”ƒ‰ƒ–‹… ‘—–™‘”‹‰• ‘ˆ –Š‡

“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ ‹ …‘Œ—…–‹‘ ™‹–Š ƒ …‡”–ƒ‹ •‡– ‘ˆ ˜‡”„•Ǥ  ”–‹…Ž‡ Ͷ ‡š’Ž‘”‡ –Š‡

†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆ–Š‡’‡”ˆ‡…–‡ƒ‹‰‹–‘ƒƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡ˆ—…–‹‘ǡƒ†•‡––Š‡‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ

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Ͷ

–Š‹•’”‘…‡••‹–Š‡˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡‹–Š‡™‹†‡”–›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ…‘–‡š–‘ˆ–Š‡‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡

’‡”ˆ‡…–Ǥ

› ‡–Š‘† ‘ˆ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Šǡ …‘‘ ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǡ ™ƒ• –‘

™‘”™‹–Šƒ‘–Š‡”Ǧ–‘‰—‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…‘•—Ž–ƒ–ǡ‘”…‘•—Ž–ƒ–•Ǥ ‘”–™‘Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•—•‡†

ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ …‘”’‘”ƒǣ ˆ‘” ‡œ‰‹ǡ ƒ ‹–‡”‡– ‡œ‰‹ƒ ‘”’—•ǡ ƒ† ˆ‘” ˜‡ǡ ƒ

‡š–‡•‹˜‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…‘”’—•–Šƒ–”ƒ‡†‘”ˆ‹†Ž›ƒ†‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡–‘‡Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ

•–—†‹‡†‰”ƒƒ”•ƒ†Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•ǡƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‡†ƒ–—”ƒŽ–‡š–•‹’”‹–‡†ƒ†

‡Ž‡…–”‘‹…ˆ‘”ǤŠ‡™‘”‹‰™‹–Š–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…‘•—Ž–ƒ–•˜‹”–—ƒŽŽ›ǡ‹ƒ††‹–‹‘–‘–Š‡

…‘•—Ž–ƒ–•ǯ•’‘–ƒ‡‘—•Ž›…”‡ƒ–‡†‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǡ†ƒ–ƒ™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘…‘ŽŽ‡…–‡†–Š”‘—‰Š‡Ž‹…‹–ƒ–‹‘ʹǤ

Š‹Ž‡–Š‡‡–Š‘†‘ˆ‡Ž‹…‹–ƒ–‹‘™ƒ•‘”‡’”‘‘—…‡†™‹–Š–Š‡‡œ‰‹†ƒ–ƒ‹”–‹…Ž‡ʹǡˆ‘”

ƒ–ƒ” ȋ”–‹…Ž‡ ͳȌ ƒ† ƒ•Š‹” ȋ”–‹…Ž‡ ͵Ȍ ‘•– †ƒ–ƒ ™ƒ• ˆ”‘ ƒ–—”ƒŽ –‡š–• ƒ†

…‘˜‡”•ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ˜‡™ƒ•ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽ…ƒ•‡ǡ†—‡–‘‹–•…‘’Ž‡š†‹ƒŽ‡…–•‹–—ƒ–‹‘ȋ•‡‡ƒ‡†‘”ˆ

ʹͲͳͷǣ ͳ͸ͳȌǤ Š‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• —•‡† ‹ ”–‹…Ž‡ Ͷ ”‡’”‡•‡– ˆ‹˜‡ †‹ƒŽ‡…–•ǡ ™Š‹…Š †‹ˆˆ‡” ˆ”‘

‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡” ‘– Œ—•– ‹ ’Š‘‘Ž‘‰› ƒ† Ž‡š‹…‘ǡ „—– ƒŽ•‘ ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰› ƒ† •›–ƒšǤ Š‹•

’”‡•‡–‡†ƒ…ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡‹–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤ‡›ƒ•’‡…–ˆ‘”‡

‹ –Š‡ ‡šƒ‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ™ƒ• ƒ……‡•• –‘ …‘–‡š–—ƒŽ Ȃ „‘–Š ‹–”ƒ–‡š–—ƒŽǡ ƒ† ™Š‡

’‘••‹„Ž‡ǡ‡š–”ƒ–‡š–—ƒŽȂ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ•–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ…‘–‡š–‹•‘ˆ‰”‡ƒ–‹’‘”–ƒ…‡ˆ‘”

–Š‡ƒ……—”ƒ–‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…ƒ†’”ƒ‰ƒ–‹……—‡•Ǥ

Š‹•‹–”‘†—…–‘”›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡•‹•‹•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘ƒ‹’ƒ”–•ǣƒ†‹•…—••‹‘

‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ‹ –‘’‹…• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” ƒ”–‹…Ž‡• ˆ”‘ ƒ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ …”‘••ǦŽ‹‰—‹•–‹… ˜‹‡™’‘‹–ǡ ƒ† ƒ

‡’‹”‹…ƒŽ ‡š’Ž‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ –‘’‹…• ƒ† –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ •–—†› ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•

”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡†Ǥ ‡…–‹‘• ʹ ƒ† ͵ ‘ˆˆ‡” –Š‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ †‹•…—••‹‘ǡ ƒ† ‡…–‹‘ Ͷ ’”‡•‡–• –Š‡

ƒ„•–”ƒ…–•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘—”ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•Ǥ‡…–‹‘•ͷƒ†͸‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ƒ†’”‡•‡––Š‡ƒ‹”‡•—Ž–•

‘ˆ –Š‡ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ •–—†‹‡•Ǥ › ƒ‹ ‹• –™‘ˆ‘Ž†ǣ –‘ †‹•’Žƒ› …‘‘ –”ƒ‹–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•

•–—†‹‡†ǡƒ†–‘•Š‘™–Š‡†‹•–‹…–‹˜‡’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…–‘‡ƒ…Š‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡Ǥ

Š‡ ƒ‹ ˆ‹†‹‰• ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘—” Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ •—’’Ž‡‡–‡† „› ‰”ƒ’Š‹… †‹•’Žƒ›•

‘”‹‰‹ƒŽŽ›’—„Ž‹•Š‡†‹–Š‡ˆ‘—”ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡‹ƒ‰”ƒͳȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸ǤͳȌǡ‹ƒ‰”ƒͶ ȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸ǤͶȌƒ†ƒ„Ž‡ͷȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸Ǥ͸Ȍˆ‘”ƒ–ƒ”Ǣ‹ƒ‰”ƒʹȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸ǤͳȌˆ‘”˜‡Ǣ

‹ƒ‰”ƒ͵ȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸ǤʹȌˆ‘”‡œ‰‹ƒ†ƒ„Ž‡Ͷȋ‹‡…–‹‘͸Ǥ͵Ȍˆ‘”ƒ•Š‹”Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ

ʹ Š‡ ‡–Š‘† ‘ˆ ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ‹–› Œ—†‰‡–• ™ƒ• —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ …‘Œ—…–‹‘ ™‹–Š ‡Ž‹…‹–ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– ‘– ƒ• ƒ …‘•‹•–‡–’”‹…‹’Ž‡.

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ͷ

‹‰—”‡ ͳ ȋ‹ ‡…–‹‘ ͸ǤͳȌ ’”‡•‡–• ƒ •‡ƒ–‹… ƒ’ „”‹‰‹‰ –‘‰‡–Š‡” –Š‡ ˆ‹†‹‰• ‘ˆ –Š‡

ˆ—…–‹‘• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’‡”ˆ‡…–Ǥ Š‡ †‹•…—••‹‘ ‹• †”ƒ™ –‘ ƒ …Ž‘•‡ ‹ •‡…–‹‘ ͸Ǥ͹ ™‹–Š ƒ ˜‹•—ƒŽ

†‹•’Žƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‡†…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ƒ††‘ƒ‹•‹–Š‡

ˆ‘—”Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ†‡’‹…–‡†‹ ‹‰—”‡ʹǤ

™‹ŽŽ „”‹‰ –Š‹• ‹–”‘†—…–‘”› ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ –‘ ƒ …Ž‘•‡ ™‹–Š …‘•‹†‡”ƒ–‹‘• ‘ –Š‡

…‘–”‹„—–‹‘• –Š‹• –Š‡•‹• ‘ˆˆ‡”• –‘ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ •–—†‹‡•ǡ ƒ† …‘…Ž—•‹‘• †”ƒ™ ˆ”‘ –Š‡

•–—†›‘ˆ–Š‡–‘’‹…•ƒ†‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘—”ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•Ǥ

2. Background to evidentiality

2.1. Evidentiality and communication

‘™Ž‡†‰‡…ƒ‘–„‡†‡–ƒ…Š‡†ˆ”‘”‡ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‘”‹•‹–•‹’Ž›–‘†‘™‹–Š…‘•…‹‘—••—„Œ‡…–•

‹‹•‘Žƒ–‹‘Ǣ‹–‹•Ǯƒ•‘…‹ƒŽ’Š‡‘‡‘ǡƒƒ•’‡…–‘ˆ–Š‡•‘…‹ƒŽ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•„‡–™‡‡’‡‘’Ž‡ǯ ȋ‹ŽŽƬ”˜‹‡ͳͻͻʹǣͳ͹ȌǤŠ‡•’‡ƒ‡”…ƒ’ƒ••‘‘™Ž‡†‰‡—•‹‰‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽǡŽ‡š‹…ƒŽ

ƒ†‡š–”ƒŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…‡ƒ•Ǥ‘‰•––Š‡•‡ǡ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹•ƒŽ‹‰—‹•–‹……ƒ–‡‰‘”›–‘†‘™‹–Š

‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ •‘—”…‡ǣ –Š‡ •’‡ƒ‡” —•‡• ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ƒ”‡”• –‘

…‘—‹…ƒ–‡ –‘ –Š‡ ƒ††”‡••‡‡ –Š‡ •‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ •Š‡͵ ‹• …‘˜‡›‹‰Ǥ ŽŽ

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• …ƒ ‡š’”‡•• ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ •‘—”…‡ Ž‡š‹…ƒŽŽ›ǡ ƒ† ƒ —„‡” ‘ˆ –Š‡ …‘˜‡› ‹–

–Š”‘—‰Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡ƒ•Ǥ Š‹Ž‡ ”‡…‘‰‹•‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ †‹•–‹…–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ Ž‡š‹…ƒŽ ƒ†

‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… ‡Ž‡‡–• ‹• ‘– ‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž› •–”ƒ‹‰Š–ˆ‘”™ƒ”† ȋ•‡‡ǡ ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ

‘›‡ǯ•ȋʹͲͳͺȌ†‹•…—••‹‘‘–Š‡“—‡•–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ‹‰†‘ƒ‹˜•Ǥ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ…‘†‹‰

‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ȍǡ ‹ –Š‹• •–—†› –Š‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ ˆƒŽŽ —†‡” ™Šƒ–

›„‡‡ ‡– ƒŽ ȋͳͻͻͶǣ ʹȌ †‡ˆ‹‡ ƒ• ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‘”’Š‡‡•ǡ ‘” ‰”ƒ•Ǥ ”ƒ• ƒ”‡ ˆ—…–‹‘

™‘”†•Ͷƒ†ƒˆˆ‹š‡•ȋƒ•’‡Žƒ–ŠʹͲͲ͵ǣʹͳͳȌǡƒ†…ƒ„‡…‘–”ƒ•–‡†™‹–Š…‘–‡–™‘”†•Ǥ

Š‡› Šƒ˜‡ Dz•‘‡ —‹“—‡ ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ „‡Šƒ˜‹‘”dz ȋ›„‡‡ ‡– ƒŽ ͳͻͻͶǣ ʹȌǡ ‹…Ž—†‹‰

‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘•™‹–Š‘–Š‡”Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…‡Ž‡‡–•Ǥ

”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽƒ”‡”•‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‘—”…‡ǡ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•ǡƒ”‡—•‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡’—”’‘•‡

‘ˆ ‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡ …‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘Ǣ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ƒ‘‰ –Š‡ Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… †‡˜‹…‡• ƒ† …—‡• –Š‡ •’‡ƒ‡”

͵–Š‹•‹–”‘†—…–‘”›’ƒ’‡”ǡ–Š‡’”‘‘—Dz•Š‡dz‹•—•‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”ǡ‡š…‡’–ˆ‘”‹…ƒ•‡•™Š‡”‡DzŠ‡dz‘……—”•

‹–Š‡•‘—”…‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡Ǥ

Ͷ —…–‹‘ ™‘”†• ƒŽ•‘ ‹…Ž—†‡ ƒ—š‹Ž‹ƒ”‹‡•ǡ „—– –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‘•– ’ƒ”– ‡š…Ž—†‡† ˆ”‘ –Š‹• •–—†› ȋ•‡‡ǡ

Š‘™‡˜‡”ǡ”‡‡†ʹͲͳͶȋʹͲͳ͸ȌǣͺͶȌǤ

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͸

…ƒ —•‡ –‘ •‹‰ƒŽ –‘ –Š‡ ƒ††”‡••‡‡ Š‡” ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’ –‘ –Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ •Š‡ ™‹•Š‡• –‘

…‘˜‡›Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”‹…‡ ȋͳͻͺͻǣ ʹ͸Ȃʹ͹Ȍǡ •—……‡••ˆ—Ž …‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‹• ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡† „›

ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰–Š‡‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹˜‡”‹…‹’Ž‡Ǥ—ȋʹͲͳͺǣͷͻȌ”‡Žƒ–‡•–Š‹•”‹…‡ƒ’”‹…‹’Ž‡–‘–Š‡

—•‡‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•ǣDzƒ”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹˜‡•’‡ƒ‡”—•–’”‘˜‹†‡–Š‡ƒ††”‡••‡‡™‹–Š

ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡Ž›…Š‘•‡‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•dzǤŠ‡•’‡ƒ‡”‡‡†•–‘–ƒ‡‹–‘ƒ……‘—––Š‡ƒ††”‡••‡‡ǯ•

‘™Ž‡†‰‡ƒ†’‘•‹–‹‘ǡ‡š’”‡••‹‰Š‡”•‡Žˆ‹ƒ™ƒ› ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡–‘–Š‹•ƒ†–Š‡•’‡‡…Š

•‹–—ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

Š‡ ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–• ‘ˆ ƒ •’‡‡…Š •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ ƒ†Š‡”‡ –‘ –Š‡ ‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹˜‡ ”‹…‹’Ž‡ ™Š‡

–Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ ƒš‹• ƒ”‡ ‹ ‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǣ ͳȌ —ƒ–‹–› Ȃ –Š‡ ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡ ƒ‘—– ‘ˆ

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǢʹȌ—ƒŽ‹–›Ȃ–Š‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•Š‘—Ž†‘–„‡ˆƒŽ•‡ǡƒ†–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”•Š‘—Ž†‘–

•ƒ›™Šƒ–•Š‡†‘‡•‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ†‡“—ƒ–‡‡˜‹†‡…‡ͷˆ‘”Ǣ͵Ȍ‡Žƒ–‹‘Ȃ–Š‡‡••ƒ‰‡‡‡†•–‘„‡

”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– ‹ –Š‡ •’‡‡…Š •‹–—ƒ–‹‘Ǣ ͶȌ ƒ‡” Ȃ –Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‡‡†• –‘ „‡ …Ž‡ƒ”Ž›

‡š’”‡••‡†ƒ†‡ƒ•‹Ž›—†‡”•–ƒ†ƒ„Ž‡ȋ”‹…‡ͳͻͺͻǣʹ͸Ȃʹ͹ȌǤˆ–Š‡•‡ǡƒš‹•ͳ–‘͵•Š‘™

™Šƒ––Š‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•Š‘—Ž†„‡Ž‹‡ǡƒ†ƒš‹ͶǡŠ‘™‹–•Š‘—Ž†„‡‡š’”‡••‡†ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ•

–Š‡—•‡‘ˆƒ”‡”•–‘‹†‹…ƒ–‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‘—”…‡™‘—Ž†•‡‡ǡˆ‘”–Š‡‘•–’ƒ”–ǡ–‘ˆƒŽŽ

—†‡”ƒš‹ʹǡ‹–Šƒ–ƒ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽƒ”‡”•’‡…‹ˆ‹‡•–Š‡‘”‹‰‹‘ˆ–Š‡‡••ƒ‰‡ƒ†–Š—•

…‘–”‹„—–‡•–‘‹–•‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡“—ƒŽ‹–›ǡ‹–ƒŽ•‘”‡Žƒ–‡•–‘–Š‡Dz…Ž‡ƒ”‡š’”‡••‹‘dz‘ˆƒš‹ͶǤ—

ȋʹͲͳͺǣ͸ʹȌ•‡‡•‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ•—Ž–‹ƒ–‡Ž›Šƒ˜‹‰–‘†‘™‹–ŠDz‘™Ž‡†‰‡’ƒ…ƒ‰‹‰ƒ†

•Šƒ”‹‰ǡ ƒ• –Š‡ •’‡‡…ŠǦƒ…– ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–• …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‡ –‘ ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡ ‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡ ˜‡”„ƒŽ

…‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘dzǤŠ‡ˆ‘…—•‘ˆ–Š‹••–—†›‹•‘–‘–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”Ǧƒ††”‡••‡‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘ƒ†

–Š‡•‘…‹ƒŽˆ—…–‹‘•‹–…ƒ…‘˜‡›ȋ•‡‡‹’’‡”ʹͲͳͳȌǡ„—–‘–Š‡˜‹‡™’‘‹–‘ˆ–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”Ǥ

‘™‡˜‡”ǡ „”‹‡ˆŽ› –‘—…Š ‘ –Š‹• ’”‘‹•‹‰ ‡™ ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘ƒŽ ƒ‰Ž‡ ‘ˆ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘ǡ

ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡† „› ‹’’‡” ƒ† ‘–Š‡”•ǡ ‹ › †‹•…—••‹‘ ‘ˆ ȋ‹–‡”Ȍ•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–› ƒ†

—Ž–‹•—„Œ‡…–‹˜‹–›ȋ•‡‡”‡‡†ʹͲͳͺǣʹ͹ǡƒ†‡…–‹‘͸Ǥ͵Ǥͳ‘ˆ–Š‹•‹–”‘†—…–‘”›ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ȌǤ

2.2. Evidentiality: history and different viewpoints

Š‡‡ƒ”Ž‹‡•–™”‹––‡”‡…‘”†•‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ƒ•ƒŽ‹‰—‹•–‹…’Š‡‘‡‘‰‘„ƒ…ƒŽ‘•–

ʹǡͷͲͲ ›‡ƒ”• –‘ –Š‡ Ͷ–Š …‡–—”› ’Š‹Ž‘Ž‘‰‹•– ¢ᒤ‹‹ǡ ™Š‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‹ƒ–‡† –Š‡ †‘Ǧ”›ƒ

ƒ•”‹– ’‡”ˆ‡…– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‘–Š‡” ˜‡”„ ˆ‘”• „› ‹–• —•‡ ˆ‘” ’ƒ•– ƒ…–‹‘• ™Š‹…Š ™‡”‡ ‘–

ͷ”‹…‡ǯ•—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡–‡”Dz‡˜‹†‡…‡dzƒ’’‡ƒ”•–‘…‘„‹‡„‘–Š–Š‡‘–‹‘•‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ†‹–•–”—–Š˜ƒŽ—‡

ȋDz’”‘‘ˆdzȌǡ–Š—•”‡Žƒ–‹‰–‘‡’‹•–‡‹…‡š’”‡••‹‘ǤŠ‹•†‹ˆˆ‡”•ˆ”‘–Š‡–‡”Dz‡˜‹†‡…‡dz—•‡†‹‘”‡”‡…‡–

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•–—†‹‡•ǡ™Š‡”‡‹–‹••‡‡ƒ•›‘›ˆ‘”Dz‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘dzƒ†Dz‘™Ž‡†‰‡dzǤ

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͹

™‹–‡••‡†„—–™‡”‡”‡’‘”–‡†„›–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”ȋƒ”†‘ƒʹͲͲ͵ǣͳ͵ͻȌǤ–Š‡ͳͳ–Š…‡–—”›

–Š‡ Ž‡š‹…‘‰”ƒ’Š‡” ƒᒒó† ƒŽǦ¢æɀƒ”Ä ‡–‹‘‡† …ƒ•‡• ™Š‡ –Š‡ Ž† —”‹… ’”‡–‡”‹–‡ǡ

—•—ƒŽŽ›ˆ‘”‡†™‹–Š–Š‡•—ˆˆ‹š-diǡ …‘—Ž†ƒŽ•‘Šƒ˜‡–Š‡•—ˆˆ‹š-mišǣ–Š‡ˆ‘”™‹–Š-di™ƒ•

—•‡†™Š‡Dz–Š‡ƒ…–‹‘‘……—””‡†‹–Š‡’”‡•‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”dzǡ™Š‡”‡ƒ•-miš ‹†‹…ƒ–‡†

–Šƒ–Dz–Š‡ƒ…–‹‘‘……—””‡†‹–Š‡ƒ„•‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”dzȋƒ‘ˆˆͳͻͺʹǢƒŽǦ¢æɀƒ”ÄǣͶͳʹȌǤ

‘ƒ• ‹• …”‡†‹–‡† ƒ• –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒ–‘” ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ„‡Ž• Dz‡˜‹†‡…‡dz ƒ† DzŠ‡ƒ”•ƒ›dz ‹ –Š‡

…‘–‡š– ‘ˆ Š‹• ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‘ –Š‡ ‘”–Š‡” ƒƒ•Šƒ ™ƒ‹—–Ž Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ ‹ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ʹͲ–Š

…‡–—”›ȋ•‡‡ƒ…‘„•‡ͳͻͺ͸ǣ͵ȌǤŠ‹•†‹•…—••‹‘‘Š‘™‘„Ž‹‰ƒ–‘”›ƒ•’‡…–•‘ˆ‰”ƒƒ”

˜ƒ”› ƒ…”‘•• Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ ‘ƒ• ȋͳͻ͵ͺǣ ͳ͵͵Ȍ ‡–‹‘• Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ •‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ȂDz™Š‡–Š‡”•‡‡ǡŠ‡ƒ”†ǡ‘”‹ˆ‡””‡†dzȂ‹•ƒ‘‰•—…Šƒ•’‡…–•Ǥƒ–‡”ǡƒ‘„•‘

ȋͳͻ͹ͳǣͳ͵ͷȌ‹–”‘†—…‡•ƒ–‡–ƒ–‹˜‡Žƒ„‡ŽDz‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽdzˆ‘”ƒ˜‡”„ƒŽ…ƒ–‡‰‘”›”‡ˆ‡””‹‰–‘–Š‡

•‘—”…‡‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ„‘—–ƒƒ””ƒ–‡†‡˜‡–ǤŠ‹••‘—”…‡…ƒ„‡•‘‡‘‡‡Ž•‡ǯ•”‡’‘”–

ȋƒ‘„•‘…ƒŽŽ•–Š‹•Dz“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡dzƒ†DzŠ‡ƒ”•ƒ›dzȌǡƒ†”‡ƒȋDz”‡˜‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡˜‹†‡…‡dzȌǡƒ‰—‡••

ȋDz’”‡•—’–‹˜‡ ‡˜‹†‡…‡dzȌǡ ƒ† –Š‡ •’‡ƒ‡”ǯ• ’”‡˜‹‘—• ‡š’‡”‹‡…‡ ȋDz‡‘”› ‡˜‹†‡…‡dzȌǤ ‘”ƒ‘„•‘ǡ–Š‹•…ƒ–‡‰‘”›‹••‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ˆ”‘‘‘†ȋƒ…‘„•‡ͳͻͺ͸ǣͷȌǤ

–Š‡•‡…‘†ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡ʹͲ–Š…‡–—”›•–—†‹‡•‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‰ƒ‹‡†‘‡–—ǡ

™‹–Šƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ†‡ˆ‹‹–‹‘•ƒ†’‘•‹–‹‘•ǡ•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ‹‘‡•„‡‹‰–Šƒ–‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›

Šƒ• –‘ †‘ ™‹–Š –Š‡ •‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡••ƒ‰‡ …‘˜‡›‡† „› –Š‡ •’‡ƒ‡”

ȋ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ʹͲͲͶȌǡ‘”™‹–Š–Š‡–›’‡‘ˆŒ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘–Š‡•’‡ƒ‡”Šƒ•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”ƒ‹‰

Š‡” …Žƒ‹ ȋ†‡”•‘ ͳͻͺ͸ǣ ʹ͹ͶȌǤ  ‡˜‡” ‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰ —„‡” ‘ˆ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡

†‘…—‡–‡† ƒ• ‡š’”‡••‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰• –Š”‘—‰Š ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡ƒ•ǡ ‹…Ž—†‹‰

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• •’‘‡ ‹ ‘—–Š ‡”‹…ƒǡ –Š‡ ƒŽƒ•ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ƒ—…ƒ•—•Ǣ •—…Š ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ™‡”‡

ƒŽ•‘ ˆ‘—† ‹ ‹„‡–‘Ǧ—”ƒ ƒ† —”‹… Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǥ ‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‘ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› Šƒ• ƒŽ•‘

‰ƒ–Š‡”‡† ’ƒ…‡ ‹ ˆ”‹…ƒǡ ƒ† –Š‡”‡ ‹•‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡…‡ –Šƒ– –Š‹• …‘–‹‡–ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ†

„‡‡ ”‡‰ƒ”†‡† ƒ• Žƒ…‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ †‘‡• ‹†‡‡† —•‡ ‹–Ǥ —””‡– ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š

ˆ‘…—•‡•‘–Š‡—†ƒ‹…„‡Ž–ƒ†•‘—–Š‡”ˆ”‹…ƒȋ–‘”…ŠʹͲͳͺǣ͸ͳʹȌǤòŽ†‡ƒǯ•ȋʹͲͲͺȌ

‡š–‡•‹˜‡ •›…Š”‘‹… ƒ† †‹ƒ…Š”‘‹… •—”˜‡› ‹ ˆ”‹…ƒ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ˆ‘…—•‡• ‘ ‘‡

’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ” –›’‡ ‘ˆ ȋ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽȌ ƒ”‡”ǡ –Š‡ •‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡† “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ‹†‡š‡•ǣ DzŽ‹‰—‹•–‹… ˆ‘”•

•‹‰ƒŽŽ‹‰ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡…‡ ‘ˆ ”‡’‘”–‡† •’‡‡…Šdz ȋòŽ†‡ƒ ʹͲͲͺǣ ͳȌǤ  —”ƒ•‹ƒǡ –Š‡ ƒ‹

ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ‹–‡”‡•–ˆ‘”–Š‡…—””‡–•–—†›ǡ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹•”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•ƒƒ”‡ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡ǡ„—––Š‡

†‹•…—••‹‘ …‘–‹—‡• ƒ• –‘ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ ’Š‡‘‡‘ ‹• –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž– ‘ˆ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǧ‹–‡”ƒŽ

(19)

ͺ

–”ƒ•‹••‹‘ǡƒ†™Š‡”‡‹–‹•†—‡–‘†‹ˆˆ—•‹‘–Š”‘—‰ŠŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡…‘–ƒ…–ǡ‘”’‡”Šƒ’•–Š‡

‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘‘ˆ„‘–ŠŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǧ‹–‡”ƒŽƒ†Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǧ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆƒ…–‘”•Ǥ

‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒŒ‘” ™‘”• †‹•…—••‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ† ”‡Žƒ–‡† …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡• ‹ –Š‡

™‘”Ž†ǯ•Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡Šƒˆ‡ƒ†‹…Š‘Ž•ȋͳͻͺ͸ȌǢ‹ŽŽ‡––ȋͳͻͺͺȌǡ‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰ƒ‡ƒ”Ž›…”‘••Ǧ

Ž‹‰—‹•–‹… •—”˜‡› ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ǣ ‘Šƒ•‘ ƒ† –ƒ• ȋʹͲͲͲȌǡ …‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‰ ‘ —”‹…ǡ

”ƒ‹ƒ ƒ† ”ƒŽ‹… Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•Ǣ ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ• ȋʹͲͲͶȌ ‘‘‰”ƒ’Š ‘ –Š‡ ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ

…ƒ–‡‰‘”›‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ǣƒ†ƒ”‡…‡–Ž›’—„Ž‹•Š‡†Šƒ†„‘‘‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ȋ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†

ʹͲͳͺȌǤ  ”‡…Š Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…• –Š‡ ’Š‡‘‡‘ ‹• †‹•…—••‡† ‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆmédiativitéǡ

‡†‹ƒ–‹˜‹–›ȋ—‡–…Š±˜ƒͳͻͻ͸Ǣ—‡–…Š±˜ƒƬƒ†ƒ„—”›ʹͲͲ͹Ȍǡ™Š‹…Š”‡ˆ‡”•–‘‹†‹”‡…–

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ  –Š‡ —••‹ƒǦ•’‡ƒ‹‰ …‘–‡š–ǡ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ‹• ƒŽ•‘ …ƒŽŽ‡†

zasvidetel’stvovannost’ Ǯ™‹–‡••‡†‡••ǯǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‹†‹”‡…– –›’‡ …ƒ „‡ ”‡ˆ‡””‡† –‘ ƒ•

zaglaznost’ Ǯƒ„•‡–‹˜‡‡••ǯǤ˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›Šƒ•„‡‡†‹•…—••‡†‹ƒ›”‡…‡–‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ

Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›‹ƒ—…ƒ•‹ƒǡ ‹‘Ǧ‰”‹…ƒ†—”‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡƒ†ƒŽ•‘

‹ƒ‘‘‰”ƒ’Š‡†‹–‡†„›”ƒ‘˜•‹ŒȋʹͲͲ͹ȌǤ

 Š‡” •‡‹ƒŽ ‘‘‰”ƒ’Š ‘ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›ǡ ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ† ȋʹͲͲͶȌ †‡ˆ‹‡•

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ• ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ •‘—”…‡ ƒ† ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡• •‹š „ƒ•‹…

•‡ƒ–‹… ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”• ‡’Ž‘›‡† ‹ Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡• ˆ‘” ‡š’”‡••‹‰ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ‡ƒ‹‰•Ǥ

‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ• ȋʹͲͳͶǣ ͻȌ •‡ƒ–‹… ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”• ƒ”‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽǡ ȋ‘Ǧ˜‹•—ƒŽȌ •‡•‘”›ǡ ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ǡ

ƒ••—’–‹‘ǡ ”‡’‘”–‡†ǡ ƒ† “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‡”•ǡ ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ Dz˜‹•—ƒŽdzǡ •Š‘™

”‡…‡’–‹‘‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘–Š”‘—‰Š’Š›•‹…ƒŽ’”‘…‡••‡•ǡ‘–Š‡”•ǡ•—…Šƒ•Dz‹ˆ‡”‡…‡dzǡ‹˜‘Ž˜‡

‡–ƒŽ ’”‘…‡••‡•Ǥ —…Š –‡”• ƒ• DzŠ‡ƒ”•ƒ›dz ƒ† Dz“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡dzǡ …‘…‡” ƒ‘–Š‡” ’‡”•‘ǯ•

•’‡‡…Š ™Š‹…Š ‹• ”‡Žƒ›‡† „› –Š‡ ”‡…‹’‹‡–Ǥ –Š‡” …‘‘ –‡”• —•‡† ˆ‘” ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ

‡ƒ‹‰• ƒ”‡ ™‹–‡••‡† ˜•Ǥ ‘Ǧ™‹–‡••‡†ǡ †‹”‡…– ƒ† ‹†‹”‡…–ǡ ƒ† ‘Ǧˆ‹”•–Šƒ† ƒ†

ˆ‹”•–Šƒ†Ǥ ƒ„Ž‡ ͳ †‹•’Žƒ›• ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ• ȋʹͲͲͶǡ ʹͲͳͶȌ •‡ƒ–‹… ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”• ƒ† •Š‘™•

–Šƒ– –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– –™‘ ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”• ˆƒŽŽ —†‡” Dzˆ‹”•–Šƒ†dzǡ ™Š‡”‡ƒ• –Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹‹‰ ˆ‘—” ƒ”‡

•—„•—‡†—†‡”Dz‘Ǧˆ‹”•–Šƒ†dz‡ƒ‹‰•Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡†‡ˆ‹‹–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•

ƒ”‡‰‹˜‡ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ȋʹͲͳͶǣͻȌǤ

(20)

ͻ

ͳǤ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ•ȋʹͲͲͶǡʹͲͳͶȌ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•‡ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•ƒ†–Š‡‹”†‡ˆ‹‹–‹‘•

—’‡”…ƒ–‡‰‘”› Firsthand Non-firsthand

‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ•

ȋʹͲͲͶȌ

’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡” Visual Sensory Inference Assumption Reported Quotative

‡ˆ‹‹–‹‘ǣ

›’‡‘ˆ

‡˜‹†‡…‡ ȋ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†

ʹͲͳͶǣͻȌ

…“—‹”‡†

–Š”‘—‰Š

•‡‡‹‰

…“—‹”‡†

–Š”‘—‰Š

Š‡ƒ”‹‰

ȋƒ†

•‡ŽŽǡ

–ƒ•–‡ǡ

–‘—…ŠȌ

ƒ•‡†‘

˜‹•‹„Ž‡‘”

–ƒ‰‹„Ž‡

‡˜‹†‡…‡

‘””‡•—Ž–

ƒ•‡†‘

‡˜‹†‡…‡

‘–Š‡”–Šƒ

˜‹•‹„Ž‡”‡•—Ž–•ǣ

Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ

”‡ƒ•‘‹‰ǡ

‰‡‡”ƒŽ

‘™Ž‡†‰‡

‡’‘”–‡†

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘

™‹–Š‘

”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡–‘

–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ

•‘—”…‡

‡’‘”–‡†

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘

™‹–Šƒ

‘˜‡”–

”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡

–‘–Š‡

“—‘–‡†

•‘—”…‡

”‡…‡–Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡“—‡•–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡”ƒ‹•‡†ƒ•–‘™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡…ƒ

„‡ ‹…Ž—†‡† ƒ‘‰•– ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ•Ǥ ‘›‡ ȋʹͲͳͺǣ ʹ͸ͶȂʹ͸ͷȌ ˆ‘…—•‡• ƒ––‡–‹‘ ‘ –Š‡

†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ”‡’‘”–ƒ–‹˜‡ ȋ”‡’‘”–‡†Ȍ ƒ† –Š‡ “—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ ƒ† ’‘‹–• ‘—– –Šƒ–

™Š‡”‡ƒ•–Š‡”‡’‘”–ƒ–‹˜‡Šƒ••…‘’‡‘˜‡”’”‘’‘•‹–‹‘•ȋDz‡ƒ‹‰—‹–•–Šƒ–…ƒ„‡•ƒ‹†–‘

Šƒ˜‡ƒ–”—–Š˜ƒŽ—‡dzȌǡ–Š‡•…‘’‡‘ˆ–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡‹•‘˜‡”‹ŽŽ‘…—–‹‘•͸ǤŠ‹•’‘‹–‘ˆ˜‹‡™‹•

ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‡†‹›•–—†›ǡƒ†–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•ƒ‹ŽŽ‘…—–‹‘ƒ”›“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ȋ•‡‡ƒ„Ž‡

͵ǡƒ†ƒˆ—ŽŽ‡”†‹•…—••‹‘‹‡…–‹‘͵ǤͷȌǤ

‹ŽŽ‡–– ȋͳͻͺͺǣ ͷͶȌ •—‰‰‡•–• ƒ –Š”‡‡Ǧ™ƒ› †‹˜‹•‹‘ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ• ‹–‘ –Š‘•‡ ™Š‹…Š …‘˜‡› •‡•‘”›ǡ ”‡’‘”–‡† ƒ† ‹ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ ‡˜‹†‡…‡Ǥ ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ Ž—‰‹ƒ ȋʹͲͲͳȌǡ ‹‹–‹ƒŽŽ›

†‹•–‹‰—‹•Š‹‰ „‡–™‡‡ †‹”‡…– ƒ† ‹†‹”‡…– ‡˜‹†‡…‡ǡ ƒŽ•‘ ’”‘’‘•‡• ƒ –Š”‡‡Ǧ™ƒ›

†‹•–‹…–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ˜ƒŽ—‡•ǣ †‹”‡…– ‡˜‹†‡…‡ǡ ”‡ˆŽ‡…–‡† ‡˜‹†‡…‡ ƒ† ‡†‹ƒ–‡†

‡˜‹†‡…‡ǡ–Š‡Žƒ––‡”–™‘„‡‹‰ƒ•—„†‹˜‹•‹‘‘ˆ‹†‹”‡…–‡˜‹†‡…‡Ǥ‡ƒŽ•‘‹–”‘†—…‡•–Š‡

–‡”Dz’‡”•‘ƒŽ‡˜‹†‡…‡dzǡ™Š‹…Š‘……—”•™‹–Š„‘–Š†‹”‡…–‡˜‹†‡…‡ƒ†”‡ˆŽ‡…–‡†‡˜‹†‡…‡

‘ˆ–Š‡‹†‹”‡…––›’‡ǡƒ••Š‘™‹ƒ„Ž‡ʹǤ

͸—‡–‘‹–•‹ŽŽ‘…—–‹‘ƒ”›•…‘’‡ǡ‘›‡ȋʹͲͳʹǣ͵ʹȌ”‡‰ƒ”†•“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ƒ•‘Ǧ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽƒ†‘Ǧ‡’‹•–‡‹…ǤŠ‡

‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…‘–”‘˜‡”•‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–—•‘ˆ–Š‡“—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡ˆƒŽŽ•‘—–•‹†‡–Š‡•…‘’‡‘ˆ–Š‹•–Š‡•‹•Ǥ

(21)

ͳͲ

ʹǤ‹ˆˆ‡”‡––›’‡•‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‘’’‘•‹–‹‘•ȋˆ”‘Ž—‰‹ƒʹͲͲͳǣ͵ͷ͵Ȍ

Direct evidence

Indirect evidence Reflected evidence ȋᐈ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ•ƒ†

”‡•—’–‹˜‡•Ȍ

Mediated evidence ȋα—‘–ƒ–‹˜‡•Ȍ

Personal evidence

Ž—‰‹ƒǯ• †‹”‡…– ‡˜‹†‡…‡ …‘‹…‹†‡• ™‹–Š ‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ• ˜‹•—ƒŽ ƒ† •‡•‘”› ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•ǡ

‹†‹”‡…–”‡ˆŽ‡…–‡†‡˜‹†‡…‡™‹–Š‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ƒ†ƒ••—’–‹‘ǡƒ†‡†‹ƒ–‡†‡˜‹†‡…‡™‹–Š

‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ•”‡’‘”–‡†ǤŠ‹Ž‡‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†Ž‹•–•–Š‡•‹š‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•ƒ•„‡‹‰‘ƒ

’ƒ”™‹–Š‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ǡƒ†Š‡Ž’•–Š‡”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”–‘•–”ƒ‹‰Š–ˆ‘”™ƒ”†Ž›’‹’‘‹––Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ ˜ƒŽ—‡•ǡ Ž—‰‹ƒ †‹•’Žƒ›• –Š‡•‡ ‹ ƒ ƒ‡” ‘ˆ •—„†‹˜‹•‹‘•ǡ Ž‹• ƒ†

…‘‡…–‹‘•ǡ•Š‘™‹‰Š‘™–Š‡›”‡Žƒ–‡–‘‘‡ƒ‘–Š‡”ǤŠ‹•‹•Š‡Ž’ˆ—Ž™Š‡‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‰

Š‘™ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆƒ…–‘”•ǡ •—…Š ƒ• …‘‰‹–‹‘ǡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡

•’‡ƒ‡” ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ –‘ ƒ‡ „—– ƒ ˆ‡™ǡ ’Žƒ› –Š‡‹” ’ƒ”– ‹ ƒ •’‡‡…Š

•‹–—ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

Š‹•†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘ˆ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹—”‹…Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•ǡ‘Šƒ•‘ǯ•ȋʹͲͲ͵ǣʹ͹ͶȌ˜‹‡™

‘‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›‹•…‡–”‡†ƒ”‘—†–Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆDz‹†‹”‡…–‹˜‹–›dzǡ™Š‹…Š…‘‹…‹†‡•™‹–Š–Š‡

‘–‹‘•‘ˆŠ‡ƒ”•ƒ›ƒ†‹ˆ‡”‡…‡—•‡†‹‘–Š‡”–Š‡‘”‹‡•ǤŠ‡ˆ‘…—•‹•‘–•‘—…Š‘–Š‡

•‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– ‘ –Š‡ ™ƒ› Dzƒ …‘•…‹‘—• •—„Œ‡…–dz ”‡…‡‹˜‡• ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ‘ˆ ƒ

ƒ””ƒ–‹˜‡ ‡˜‡–Ǥ —…Š ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ƒ› „‡ ”‡…‡‹˜‡† –Š”‘—‰Š ”‡’‘”–‡† •’‡‡…Š ‘” Š‡ƒ”•ƒ›

ȋDz”‡’‘”–‹˜‡—•‡dzȌǡ‹ˆ‡””‡†‘–Š‡„ƒ•‹•‘ˆ”‡ˆŽ‡…–‹‘ǡ‘”ƒ•ƒŽ‘‰‹…ƒŽ…‘…Ž—•‹‘ȋDz‹ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽ

—•‡dzȌǤ  ‘Šƒ•‘ǯ• –Š‹”† –›’‡ ‘ˆ ’‘••‹„Ž‡ ”‡…‡’–‹‘ǡ Dz’‡”…‡’–‹˜‡ —•‡dzǡ ‹– ‹• ’‘••‹„Ž‡ –‘

”‡…‡‹˜‡‘™Ž‡†‰‡–Š”‘—‰Š†‹”‡…–•‡•‘”›’‡”…‡’–‹‘ǡƒ†–Š‹•—•‡ƒŽ•‘‹…Ž—†‡•Dz‹†‹”‡…–

’‡”…‡’–‹‘dz„ƒ•‡†‘–”ƒ…‡•‘ˆƒ‡˜‡–ǤŠ—•ǡ–Š‡ˆ‹”•––›’‡…‘‡•…Ž‘•‡–‘‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ•

Dz”‡’‘”–‡†dz—•‡ǡ–Š‡•‡…‘†‘‡‘˜‡”Žƒ’•™‹–ŠDzƒ••—’–‹‘dzǡƒ†–Š‡–Š‹”†‘‡‹•…Ž‘•‡–‘

‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǯ• Dz‹ˆ‡”‡…‡dzǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ƒ• ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ …ƒ ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ˜‡ ƒ •‡•‘”› …‘’‘‡–ǡ ‹–

‘˜‡”Žƒ’•™‹–Š–Š‡•‡ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”‘ˆDz•‡•‘”›dzǤ

‘”‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ǡ–Š‡’‘‹–‘ˆ†‡’ƒ”–—”‡‹‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‰‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ’Š‡‘‡ƒ‹•–‘

”‡‰ƒ”† ‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–› ƒ• ƒ ‰”ƒƒ–‹…ƒŽ …ƒ–‡‰‘”›Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‹ ’”ƒ…–‹…‡ǡ ƒ• •Š‡ †‡ˆ‹‡•

‡˜‹†‡–‹ƒŽ‹–›–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡•‡ƒ–‹…‘–‹‘‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‘—”…‡ȋ•‡‡‹Š‡˜ƒŽ†ʹͲͲͶǣͳȌǡ

Viittaukset

LIITTYVÄT TIEDOSTOT

Vuonna 1996 oli ONTIKAan kirjautunut Jyväskylässä sekä Jyväskylän maalaiskunnassa yhteensä 40 rakennuspaloa, joihin oli osallistunut 151 palo- ja pelastustoimen operatii-

Mansikan kauppakestävyyden parantaminen -tutkimushankkeessa kesän 1995 kokeissa erot jäähdytettyjen ja jäähdyttämättömien mansikoiden vaurioitumisessa kuljetusta

Tornin värähtelyt ovat kasvaneet jäätyneessä tilanteessa sekä ominaistaajuudella että 1P- taajuudella erittäin voimakkaiksi 1P muutos aiheutunee roottorin massaepätasapainosta,

The author defended his doctoral dissertation Contrastive Negation: Constructional Variation within and across Languages at the Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki, on 18

Työn merkityksellisyyden rakentamista ohjaa moraalinen kehys; se auttaa ihmistä valitsemaan asioita, joihin hän sitoutuu. Yksilön moraaliseen kehyk- seen voi kytkeytyä

The new European Border and Coast Guard com- prises the European Border and Coast Guard Agency, namely Frontex, and all the national border control authorities in the member

The problem is that the popu- lar mandate to continue the great power politics will seriously limit Russia’s foreign policy choices after the elections. This implies that the

The main decision-making bodies in this pol- icy area – the Foreign Affairs Council, the Political and Security Committee, as well as most of the different CFSP-related working