A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Self-Regulation in a Finnish Classroom

(1)

Heta Ojell & Maria Palohuhta

A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS PRACTICE ON SELF- REGULATION IN A FINNISH CLASSROOM

Faculty of Education and Culture Master Thesis April 2021

(2)

(3)

ABSTRACT

Heta Ojell & Maria Palohuhta: A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Self- Regulation in a Finnish Classroom

Master Thesis Tampere University Teacher Education April 2021

This thesis examined the use of a mindfulness practice in a Finnish elementary school. Mindfulness-based practices have risen in the field of education in recent years. The aim of this study was to investigate effects the mindfulness practice has regarding the students’ attention distribution and self-regulation during a mathematical problem-solving task. We reviewed the topic with an embodied cognition approach. The study was conducted as a qualitative research and aimed to expand understanding of the studied phenomenon.

Participants were 15 students and their teacher in the region of Pirkanmaa. A mathematical problem-solving task was executed in three study sessions including a mindfulness practice conducted by the teacher and three sessions without the practice. Data was gathered through video-recordings, self-report scales and the assessment of the performance in the mathematical tasks. The analysis was carried out in three phases: the analysis of observable behaviours; the analysis of children’s self-reports and the outcomes from the mathematics tasks. Results from the three analyses were viewed and compared individually and together.

Study findings are supportive of previous research indicating positive effects of mindfulness practices. Results show increase in engagement and decrease in disengagement examined looking at the students’ eye direction, unsettled movements and observed actions. A variance between participants was detected, but the results are still encouraging. This study joins the body of research enlightening the use of mindfulness practices as tools in the school context and contributes to the discussion of the impacts of these practices, while evidencing that future research on the topic is needed.

Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin mindfulness-harjoitusten käyttöä suomalaisessa peruskoulussa. Viime vuosina mindfulnessiin pohjaavat harjoitteet ovat nostaneet päätään kasvatuksen kentällä. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli osoittaa, mitä vaikutuksia mindfulness-harjoituksilla on oppilaiden tarkkaavaisuuteen (attention processes) ja itsesäätelyyn (self-regulation) tarkasteltuna oppilaan tehtävään sitoutuneisuuden (engagement) kautta. Lähestymme aihetta kehollisen tiedon (embodied cognition) näkökulmasta. Tutkimus toteutettiin kvalitatiivisena tutkimuksena, jonka tarkoituksena oli syventää ymmärrystä tutkittavasta ilmiöstä. Tutkimukseen osallistui yhden Pirkanmaan alueen koululuokan 15 oppilasta ja heidän opettajansa. Tutkimusaineisto kerättiin kuuden oppitunnin aikana, joista jokaisena oppilaat suorittivat matemaattisen ongelmanratkaisutehtävän. Kolmella oppitunnilla kuudesta luokan opettaja ohjasi oppilaille mindfulness-harjoituksen ennen ongelmanratkaisutehtävää ja kolmella oppitunnilla ongelmanratkaisutehtävä suoritettiin ilman harjoitusta. Aineistonkeruumenetelminä toimivat videotallenteet, itsearviointilomakkeet ja ongelmaratkaisutehtävien tulokset. Analyysi koostui kolmesta vaiheesta: videoaineiston analyysista, lasten itsearviointien analyysista ja ongelmanratkaisutehtävien tulosten analysoinnista. Eri vaiheiden tuloksia tarkasteltiin ja vertailtiin ensin jokaista erikseen ja sitten yhteydessä muuhun aineistoon. Tutkimustulokset tukevat aiempia tutkimuksia, jotka osoittavat mindfulness-harjoituksilla olevan positiivisia vaikutuksia. Tässä tutkimuksessa saadut tulokset osoittavat oppilaiden tehtävään sitoutuneisuuden (engagement) lisääntyneen ja tehtävään sitoutumattomuuden vähenneen, kun tarkastellaan katseen suuntaa (eye direction), kehon liikkeitä (unsettled movement) ja havaittuja toimia (actions). Osallistujien välillä havaittiin yksilöllistä vaihtelua, mutta tulokset ovat silti lupaavia. Tämä tutkimus tarjoaa tietoa mindfulness-harjoitusten hyödyistä ja vaikutuksista koulukontekstissa osoittaen kuitenkin tarpeen jatkotutkimukselle.

Keywords: mindfulness, mindfulness practice, self-regulation, attention, embodied cognition The originality of this thesis has been checked using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service.

(4)

(5)

1 INTRODUCTION

In our contemporary society, children and adolescents are faced with rapid- paced, demanding surroundings containing several stressors to deal with in multiple layers of their lives. Stressors are potentially arising from disturbances and conflicts at school or at home, socio-cultural challenges, sensitivity to physical and mental health problems, or from living under the pressure of the current world of media, constant multitasking, and competition (Volanen et al., 2016). Schools as the home of education should provide students with tools and a platform for developing well-being, personal growth and learning abilities and preventing disorders and distress in addition to formal education. The attempts to fulfil these needs have encouraged researchers, educators and teachers to seek methods to improve learning experiences in school (Zenner et al., 2014).

Formal education should consider the different abilities of children in several levels, and a growing body of research is evidencing that, for example, social and emotional competence are fundamentally interrelated with academic achievements (Diamond, 2010).

A large body of research suggests that challenges such as constant stress experienced in childhood or youth influences negatively on the individual’s learning-related factors, such as working memory and executive functions, mental health and overall functioning in general (Meiklejohn et al., 2012).

Research concerning Finnish students presents that children and adolescents in Finland are affected by anxiety, stress, tension, restlessness and difficulties in concentrating at school (THL, 2017 & 2019; LATE 2010). Thus, the need is visible for strategies that provide students with tools and techniques to cope with challenges and difficulties at school and in life in general as well as for strategies to protect children and adolescents from factors causing distress and producing these challenges. Various mindfulness programs have been developed for schools to cope with the modern world challenges and increase well-being and learning; the application of these programs has risen in the past years (Meiklejohn

(8)

et al., 2012). More research should be constructed to enlighten the beneficial effects of mindfulness practice on children’s and adolescent’s well-being and learning (Volanen et al., 2016). In educational processes, student’s engagement is essential in learning, and signs of engagement, such as the capability to self- regulate attention and behaviours show in the learning situations (Blair & Raver, 2015). Mindfulness-based approaches aiming to improve attentional self- regulation have considerable potential and future research should incorporate measures of attention into interventions of mindfulness practices (Felver et al., 2017). For these reasons, in this study, we examined what are the effects of mindfulness practice regarding self-regulation and attention processes in a Finnish classroom, approaching this phenomenon from the point of view of embodied cognition.

Since mindfulness practices do not exclusively focus on the mind, practising mindfulness is a bodily experience and an embodied state of being in addition to the elements of self-regulation, attention processes and mindfulness itself. Also, although learning can be considered very simply as the processing of information from experience and through that updating the system (Barron et al., 2015), learning does not only happen in the brain. Bodily engagement and task integration are investigated aspects of embodied learning (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018), and embodiment overlaps with mindfulness in many ways since they are both focusing on the self as an entity. We were interested in viewing our concepts of self-regulation and attention through the students’ engagement and examining this phenomenon, mainly focusing our analysis on video-recordings from a classroom, using self-reports and performance in mathematical problem-solving tasks as reflection points for the observational behaviours. Students’ engagement observed from the position of their bodily behaviour formed an interesting research object as it provides non-verbal, relatively unbiased insight into the matter. Before reaching deeper into the analysis itself, we discuss the theoretical framework and features of self-regulation and attention processes, mindfulness in the field of education and embodied cognition, as well as the purpose and execution of this study, preparing the groundwork for the analysis and introducing a foundation for our results to reflect on.

(9)

2 SELF-REGULATION AND ATTENTION PROCESSES

Self-regulation and attention are researched as key elements in children's learning and development and have been broadly studied in the field of education (Blair, 2002; Ursache et al., 2012; McClelland et al., 2003). The ability to self- regulate attention distribution and subsequent behaviours in learning situations reveal signs of students’ engagement in learning (Blair & Raver, 2015) and are considered essential in classroom activities throughout the schooling process. In this section, we define the concepts of self-regulation and attention processes from an educational perspective, particularly emphasizing the need for studies that address the analysis of children’s behaviour.

2.1 Self-regulation

Self-regulation is defined as a multidimensional construct that holds the regulation of emotions, behaviour and cognition (McClelland et al., 2010). It refers to the capability of controlling or directing one’s attention, emotions, thinking processes, and actions (McClelland & Cameron 2011), involving behavioural as well as cognitive processes (Liew, 2012). In educational settings self-regulation has been mostly defined by examining the behavioural aspects of self-regulation, such as explicit control over actions, applying attentional flexibility deliberately and working memory (McClelland & Cameron 2011).

The correlation between competence in self-regulatory skills and competence academically is strong (Ursache et al., 2012; McClelland et al., 2003). Capability to self-regulate is important for readiness to start school and these skills are essential for future achievements (Blair & Diamond 2008). From a neurobiological perspective, children are ready for school when in their development they are at a point where they are adequately capable of managing attention and stimulation in a way that allows them to start to regulate emotions

(10)

and attention. This enables children to sustain engagement in learning activities (Blair & Raver, 2015).

Self-regulation skills are related to a student’s adaptive behaviours; they affect children’s emotional and social competence (Liew 2012; Riggs et al., 2006).

At the same time, difficulties in self-regulation have been positively correlated to behavioural problems and emotional distress with social situations. The maladaptive behaviours are characterized by challenges and are related to a lack of self-regulation regarding, for example, attention and inhibitory control. This links maladaptive behaviour such as hyperactivity to deficits in self-regulation (Diamond 2005; Semrud-Clikeman & Schafer 2000). In addition, not learning to self-regulate may negatively affect the child’s ability to learn to cope with stress and frustration (Semrud-Clikeman & Schafer 2000).

The ability to regulate emotions and attention are forms of self-regulation that provide a foundation for school aptitude. They support dispositions conducive to learning and maintaining positive social relationships (Blair, 2002).

At school, the impacts of skills regarding self-regulation are visible. Research has established substantial evidence from a major number of studies that children who have a flexible way of managing thoughts, feelings and actions, have fewer negative experiences operating through social and learning environments (Blair

& Diamond 2008; McClelland et al. 2010). Contrary, children who have ineffective self-regulation skills have more struggles adjusting to school and have more difficulties in social interactions from a very young age early in life. Children who start kindergarten with inadequate self-regulation skills have a higher risk of developing difficulties in their studies later in school (Blair 2002; McClelland et al., 2000).

To enhance social and emotional competence, classroom environments must provide young children with the possibility to practice self-regulation. At school self-regulatory skills are visible in the classroom in attention regulation.

Abilities to maintain attention, focus attention and regulate attention are vital for students’ attendance in learning processes at school, especially in completing a task. Thus, attention processes are important for navigating and performing at school.

(11)

2.2 Attention processes

Theorists have wrestled with the concept of attention over decades (Carver &

Scheier, 1981). The most popular definition is derived from William James (1890), and it states attention as taking possession by the mind, in a clear form with focalization, consciousness and concentration being its essence. The concept of attention is continuously highly studied and debated. Paying attention, concentrating on something, can be defined as focused attention (Eriksen & Yeh, 1985).

From a physiological and cognitivist perspective, focusing attention is a physiological process used to regulate the mind. Attending a stimulus, in this approach means processing the information that the stimulus presents. This is the case whether the stimulus is part of oneself or the environment (Carver &

Scheier, 1981). Attention, although traditionally seen as a simple process, can operate across very many different functional levels. At basic level attention can be considered as a gating system in our mind that allows us to be efficient in our changing environment by restricting what incoming stimuli we process and what we ignore. Attention lets us focus on relevant information while simultaneously suppressing information that is irrelevant in the situation (Cullum, 2010;

Arciniegas et al., 2013). The process of paying attention as in selecting information for awareness has been described with terms spotlight or zoom lens (Eriksen & Yeh, 1985). These theories support the idea of the selective nature of attention.

A broad distinction in the research on attention can be made between the control of attention and the effects of attention. The concept of attention can be seen as a group of domain-specific processes rather than one monolithic process (Arciniegas et al., 2013). Therefore, attention can’t be defined only as one process; it includes different types of processes that work differently. Attention control is a form of self-control and is very central to self-regulation. It has been suggested that it would be the most influential form of self-control (Baumeister et al.,1994), thus, regulating one’s behaviour and controlling attention being essential for operating in the world. The ability to pay attention, to attend and exercise cognitive control is a vital aspect of human’s coupling in the environment and is especially important while studying and learning something new; this is

(12)

when mindfulness practices come into the picture. The impacts of mindfulness strategies on self-regulation and attention have been studied progressively and multiple mindfulness-based programs have been designed for educational settings to meet the need for effective strategies in the classroom (Meiklejohn et al., 2012) with a number of studies evidencing the positive impact on self- regulation (Black & Fernando, 2014; Flook et al., 2015). More effects of mindfulness-based practices are introduced in the following chapter (3 Mindfulness in the field of education).

A distinction between focused attention and distributed attention can be relevant from the mindfulness point of view. Distributed attention is closely related to mindfulness processes since differences in attention can be linked to differences in awareness. Mindfulness-based cognition could be characterized by distributed attention (Raffone et al., 2010). Contrary to the idea of focused attention, for example, the spotlight theory, it is possible that attention can also be more diffused across the range of stimuli (Raffone et al., 2010). This is the distributed nature of attention which differs from more specific focused attention.

The information processed can have an impact on the attentional process used.

Nonetheless, paying attention is seen as a necessary cognitive process for self- awareness (Posner, 1994). Regulating attention can be seen as one key aspect of mindfulness practices.

Distributed attention is associated with the global properties of a scene while focused attention is more connected to the detailed and specific analysis (Treisman, 2006). The different types of attentional processes can be linked to differences in processing information, for example, emotional information. It has been argued that anxiety, for example, promotes focusing of attention by narrowing what you can pay attention to (Derryberry & Reed, 1997). On the contrary, emotions seen as positive such as joy, interest, contentment and love, are linked to expanding the scope of attention (Fredrickson, 2004). These changes in focusing and broadening attention can also be a result of changes in avoidance or approach style behaviours (Förster et al., 2006). It is important to consider these changes in attention and behaviour, and the different forms of attention, while studying the effects of mindfulness practices regarding attentional processes in the school. This will give us a better understanding of how these mindfulness practices affect attentional processes.

(13)

2.3 Researching self-regulation and attention processes through engagement

Engagement is a broad construct reflecting an individual’s participation in a task.

Engagement refers to the behavioural intensity and emotional quality of active involvement during completion of a task (Connell & Wellborn, 1991). Engagement in an activity, attention processes and the ability to self-regulate are all intertwined. Self-regulation is relevant for engagement, as children need to be able to modulate behaviours and control attention to be engaged. Self-regulatory skills are relevant for a child’s engagement and social behaviour (Blair 2002;

McClelland et al., 2010), and self-regulation and attention processes can be studied as signals for engagement. Observational methods to study both the individual and the classroom have been used to measure engagement at school (Volpe et al., 2005).

Researchers have measured engagement through participant’s active involvement, such as effort, focused attention, the intenseness of the action, persistence and interest towards the task as indicative factors for engagement.

On the contrary, behaviour that does not indicate engagement but absence of engagement can be conceptualised as disengaged. For example, being passive, distracted and helpless can be seen as behaviours indicating disengagement (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Researchers have described engagement through the division of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement and a review of studies recommend studying engagement as a multifaceted construct (Fredricks et al., 2004). Focusing on the behavioural dimensions of engagement, student’s effort, attention and persistence during initiation and execution of the learning activity are defining the level of engagement (Skinner et al., 2008). In addition, prior research has defined attendance, participation and behavioural incidents as indicators of behavioural engagement (Christenson et al. 2012).

Emotional dimensions of engagement include enthusiasm, interest and enjoyment (Meyer & Turner, 2002) which can be more difficult to observe in the participant than the behavioural actions but can in some cases give clarity to bodily behaviour’s level of engagement if the level of engagement is not unambiguous. In the present study examining the impact on attention and self-

(14)

regulation during an individual problem-solving task by observing the participants, we were interested in the behavioural approach to engagement which investigates engagement through participant’s active involvement in the task and in addition the emotional dimensions visible indicating involvement in the task.

For measuring these dimensions of engagement, we need to assess in observable behaviours indicating attention, effort, verbal participation and persistence. Observing these engagement indicators, behaviour enactment and intensity of the participant’s expressions of these behaviours can be studied.

These indicators and their use in investigating engagement are modelled after literature reviews and previous studies (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Furrer &

Skinner, 2003; Volpe et al., 2005).

In education and in school settings, engagement is important as it can function as a behavioural route by which student’s motivational processes contribute to learning and development. Engagement combines behavioural and emotional aspects and refers to flexible, active, constructive, persistent and focused interactions with the environments of the student, whether social or physical, such as academic activities (Skinner et al., 2008).

(15)

3 MINDFULNESS IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION

Mindfulness can be defined as paying attention purposely as being aware of the present moment, experience in one’s body, in one’s mind and in one’s senses in the present moment and focusing on the unfolding experience without judgment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). According to Langer (2000, p. 220) “mindfulness is a flexible state of mind in which we are actively engaged in the present, noticing new things and sensitive to context”. Both definitions emphasize the importance of attention or awareness combined with the present moment. Mindfulness practices can be explored after these essentials are understood (Kane, 2018). In this chapter we take a closer look at the definition of mindfulness practices and how they have been used in a variety of fields, particularly in education as a tool enhancing students’ self-awareness and behavioural self-regulation. In this study, we will use the term mindfulness practices describing all actions and exercises using mindfulness methods such as mindfulness meditation, which involves focusing attention and sustaining it and regulating and directing attention (e.g. breathing) (Bishop, 2004).

3.1 Mindfulness practices: what it is and why it is important

Since the late 1960’s, Western medical professionals, neuroscientists, and psychotherapists have shown an interest in Buddhist teachings and meditation practices. Defining mindfulness practices is difficult as they cover such a large range of practices and traditions (Lutz et al., 2007). Mindfulness practices are typically cultivated in meditation (Raffone et al., 2010). The term meditation, as a mindfulness practice, can be conceptualized as “a family of complex emotional and attentional regulatory training regimes developed for various ends” (Lutz et al., 2008, p. 163).

(16)

Scientific research on mindfulness has risen in the past decades explosively, and with much more specific definitions of the phenomenon. The interest in mindfulness practices continued steadily and mindfulness practices started being applied to diverse medical contexts and studied widely (Škodlar, 2016). For instance, according to a systematic review and meta-analysis of mindfulness meditation for chronic pain, mindfulness practices have successfully been applied to improve chronic pain, depression symptoms and improve quality of life (Hilton et al., 2017). Quality of life was also improved with mindfulness practices in relation to fibromyalgia (Grossman et al., 2007, Schmidt et al. 2011), and in treating somatization and functional somatic disorders (Fjorback et al., 2012). These improvements were consistent across a spectrum of health measures for psychological dimensions as well as for physical well-being (Grossman et al., 2004).

Taking mindfulness practice into psychotherapy, particularly for the treatment of stress, anxiety and depression, has shifted the perspectives modern medicine carries of our capacity to overcome our vulnerabilities as human beings (Bodhi, 2011). Mindfulness practices have been applied to treat existential pain and anxiety as well as many anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. In cancer patients’ treatment mindfulness techniques have been used to help to develop a purpose in life and promote personal growth (Labelle et al., 2015), lower levels of depression and stress in outpatients, also after 6-months in follow- up research (Speca et al., 2000; Carlson et al., 2001), and to improve the quality of life for women with breast cancer (Hoffman et al., 2012). Among patients with cardio-vascular disorders mindfulness strategies have decreased stress, anxiety and depression symptoms (Abbott et al., 2014). Several meta-analyses have indicated that applications of mindfulness are promising in treating anxiety disorders in general (Hofmann et al., 2012; Vøllestad et al. 2012). Mindfulness practices have also been effective in helping with a general anxiety disorder (Roemer et al., 2008), and has worked with preventing relapses in depressive disorders (Teasdale et al., 2000; Hofmann et al., 2010; Fjorback et al., 2021).

Furthermore, mindfulness has been successfully revealed to produce positive effects on psychological well-being also in participants who are healthy (Carmody & Baer, 2008; Sharma & Rush, 2014) and to increase cognitive functioning (Jha et al., 2007; Ortner et al., 2007) such as increasing attentional

(17)

capacity by lengthening the temporal window of attention (Sauer et al., 2012).

Adding on studying the effects of a mindfulness practice regarding health, on the field of neuroscience, research towards mindfulness focuses on studying the diverse functional and structural changes in the brain after performing a mindfulness practice (Hölzel et al., 2011; Ives-Deliperi et al., 2011) which gives interesting parallel knowledge of the impacts of mindfulness practices. Exploring mechanisms of action behind mindfulness meditation combining the perspective of conceptual and psychological point of view to neuroscientific perspective Hölzel and colleagues (2011) propose four components through which mindfulness practice exerts its effects. These are attention regulation, body awareness, emotion regulation and change in perspective of the self. Mindfulness practice can be associated with neuroplastic changes in the brain and the authors suggest the mechanisms are establishing a process of increased self-regulation.

Practising mindfulness has been studied to improve self-awareness and control, it operates as regulatory exercises of mental events, which are affected by engaging some specific attentional level (Raffone et al., 2010). Attention can be regulated differently depending on how and which practices are used.

Attention regulation in mindful practices include different types of regulations of focus. Mindfulness practices can help regulate attention by sustaining attention on the present moment, for example breathing, thoughts, emotions in the here and now, monitoring the present moment and detect mind wandering, attentional switching which involves flexibility of attention and selective attention (Bishop, 2004). According to Jha and colleagues (2007) mindfulness training may impact attention-related behavioural responses enhancing them by improving functional elements of subcomponents of attention.

3.2 Mindfulness practices in school

Research on mindfulness in the field of education and in the school context has increased significantly in recent years (Lehto, 2014). The popularity of mindfulness practices gained momentum in the past decade, and research continue demonstrating the effectiveness of these contemplative practices in different levels of education (Nieminen, & Sajaniemi, 2016; Zenner et al., 2014;

Carsley et al., 2018; Semple et al., 2017; Meiklejohn et al., 2012). In schools,

(18)

contemplative practices such as breathing, listening, noticing and walking, are already part of the experiences of students and teachers. The shift into mindfulness practice begins when these ordinary everyday life activities are done with focus and attention (Kane, 2018).

Programmes, interventions and investigation on applications of mindfulness practices, such as Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) have been increasing exponentially. Although there has been considerable evidence pointing to the benefits of mindfulness practices around the world, considerably less is found in Finland. In 2016 a large research program towards mindfulness-based interventions called Healthy Learning Mind (Volanen et al.) started. The study is a first comparative randomized controlled trial conducted in Finland evaluating the specific effects of a mindfulness-based program in school settings. The preliminary results in this study are pointing out that a short 9-week mindfulness- based intervention in a school setting provides initial benefits over a relaxation program and the control group (Volanen et al., 2020).

A study conducted at kindergarten level investigated the effects of a mindfulness-based program on self-regulation; prosocial behaviour and hyperactivity were examined in 127 children (4–6-year-olds) in 8 kindergarten classrooms. The children were randomly assigned to either a mindfulness group (N = 72) or to a control group (N = 55). A 20-minute lesson was delivered 3 times a week, for 6 weeks' time. Compared to the control group, children in the mindfulness group showed higher improvement in self-regulation, were more prosocial and less hyperactive. The benefits of mindfulness-based programs in kindergarten classrooms are highlighted by these results and indicate being particularly effective for children with difficulties in these areas (Viglas, 2018). In a different setting, a 12-week mindfulness-based program in a preschool classroom also gave promising results in gains related to self-regulation (Flook et al., 2015). A link between implementation of mindfulness practices in school and self-regulation skills is visible.

Studies have investigated how the applications of mindfulness practices in the school context have resulted significant improvements in attention and concentration and in social and emotional competence with 9-14-year-olds (Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010), behavioural regulation and meta-cognition with children aged 7-9 years (Flook et al. 2010), to reduce stress and behavioural

(19)

problems in 8-12-year-old children (Van de Weijer-Bergsma et al., 2014), and improvement in self-control, paying attention, caring and respecting of others and participation in activities in elementary school children from kindergarten to sixth grade (Black & Fernando, 2014). Furthermore, systematic reviews in the field of education show the promising effects of mindfulness-based intervention on children and youths’ improvement of cognitive performance and resilience to stress (Zenner et al., 2014), and of mental health and well-being (Carsley et al., 2018). A systematic review focusing on teacher’s well-being and mindfulness interventions showed positive outcomes; applying mindfulness-based interventions into teaching contexts reduced levels of stress, anxiety, burnout in teachers and increased positive well-being measures, such as life satisfaction (Lomas et al., 2017). Semple and colleagues (2017) offer a summary of research related to ten different mindfulness-based programs used in primary and secondary schools. The review recognises successful implementation of the reviewed programs and the promising results from self-reports from students and teachers but criticises the lack of rigorous research on these programs and suggests more light to be shed to the health outcomes and observable behavioural changes of students in long term. Investigating nine significant qualitative studies evidencing benefits of mindfulness practices in early childhood Nieminen and Sajaniemi (2016) conclude that mindfulness practices can be beneficial on multiple outcomes, such as intellectual skills, working memory and concentration, attention, visual-spatial memory and physical health. All of these are related to achievements academically.

In many studies conducted, the data relies on self-reported data and questionnaires in general and it has been suggested that more triangulated measures and mixed-methods approach with the qualitative data and behavioural measures should be implied (Zenner et al., 2014). The use of mindfulness-based interventions has increased also in the Finnish educational field rapidly and high- quality studies examining the topic are lacking here as well (Volanen et al., 2020).

In Finland Volanen and colleagues (2020) suggest future research to investigate embedded regular mindfulness-based practices. Therefore, it is evident that gaps such as only using single point-of-view data in researching mindfulness techniques in schools and the lack of high-quality data behind implemented mindfulness practices in schools should be bridged and the topic should gain

(20)

more qualitative research investigating this phenomenon in Finnish schools.

Zenner and colleagues’ (2014) systematic review of mindfulness-based interventions point out that when the field of research is still scarce, even unpublished literature would enrich the discussion and could bring valuable and supplementary information about the topic for it to be investigated further on this specific research field from new approaches and measures. They also state that more research on integrating mindfulness-based programs into school-routine should be executed.

Studies have shown that mindfulness is a tool which students can utilize in schoolwork as well as in other activities outside the classroom. The whole school community benefits from more aware and focused individuals. So far, there has been very little experimentation with school applications, but educators and special educators are increasingly monitoring the potential for conscious presence in the school world (Hornich-Lisciandro, 2013; Burke, 2010; Lehto, 2014). It is considered that mindfulness education programs would have the potential to provide students resources and skills to succeed in their day to day lives better (Parker et al., 2013). However, there is still relatively little research and a great demand for research, especially in the school context and in the field of education, exists (Karunananda et al., 2016).

Bringing mindfulness into the classroom can strengthen students’ ability to concentrate, which, according to research, leads to reduced stress and increased learning ability (Napoli et al., 2005). Learning itself requires mindful engagement (Langer, 2000). Parker and colleagues (2013) applied an experimental study to investigate the effects of the Master Mind Mindfulness Program on fourth and fifth grade students. All members of the test group participated in a four-week program consisting of daily 15 minutes of mindfulness practices. The results showed improvements in executive function skills and self-regulation. Furthermore, a reduction in aggression, social problems and anxiety was observed. Introducing mindfulness into the school world can positively influence the regulation of children's behaviour, emotions and cognition. (Parker et al. 2013). Napoli and colleagues (2005), in turn, studied 228 1–3. class students from nine different schools. Test group members participated in twelve mindfulness sessions twice a month for 24 weeks. Each session was 45 minutes long. The results showed

(21)

statistically significant differences between the control group and the test group in attentiveness, social skills, and reduction in exam tension.

Based on a systematic review focusing on understanding the effects of mindfulness practices in children’s attention and executive functions, Mak and colleagues (2018) propose computerized or physiological measures to be incorporated in future studies. These objective methods would avoid biases and strengthen the results. With adults, the efficacy of mindfulness practices used to enhance cognitive abilities, including attention, memory, executive functions and further measures of cognition, has been shown in a similar literature review. The results provide preliminary evidence of the benefits of mindfulness-based training. Noting the limitations in the quality of the research reviewed regarding the topic, the review concludes results being promising and that these practices can enhance cognitive functions like attention (Chiesa et al., 2011).

To continue the discussions about the potential benefits of mindfulness practices in school context it is important to examine how practising mindfulness can affect self-regulation and paying attention in a student’s natural environment in a classroom. In the present study, we were interested in knowing how these practices can help students to learn, to cope with distractions, to self-regulate their behaviour and concentrate on the tasks at hand. In this study we are focusing on self-regulation and attention processes because regulating one’s behaviour and attention is connected to all of the above. There is a lot of research on self-regulation and by choosing this point of view towards the effects of the practice we are able to collect more specific data than just by observing effects in general. Attention processes are an important part of learning and self- regulation essential in a student’s life in the school. There is a growing concern on student’s abilities to adapt to more stimulating environments and keeping their attention focused in a world that keeps getting faster and is filled with information and distractions everywhere.

(22)

4 EMBODIED COGNITION

Investigating the implications of the functions of our brain and body mechanism have been studied in the field of cognitive neuroscience for decades (Goldman &

De Vignemont, 2009; Kiverstein & Clark, 2009). Expanding body of research examining bodily states, actions and sensorimotor systems related to cognition have formed theories referred to as embodied cognition (Barsalou, 2008; Borghi

& Cimatti, 2010). They view human cognition as actively interacting with the environment through the whole body-mind system and not only as centralized, abstract and distinct from external inputs and outputs adopted by cognitivist approaches (Wilson, 2002). In the following chapter we explain what embodiment is and how this theoretical framework helps in the present study to understand the experiences of mindfulness practices as supportive of self-regulation and control.

4.1 Theoretical approach to embodied cognition

Cognition is seen constrained by the kind of body an individual possesses; the embodied cognition approach highlights the importance of action for cognition, perceiving the body always as an acting body (Borghi & Cimatti, 2010).

Embodiment challenges the body-mind dualism present in traditional cognitivist approaches and introduces the idea that the mind must be understood in its relation to a physical body that interacts with the world (Wilson, 2002). The brain is connected to the environment only through the body. According to an embodied cognition perspective, the physical body position and movement related to the environment can shift people’s thoughts changing the way they think, the conclusions they draw, and decisions that they conclude in (Niedenthal et al., 2005). Theoretical framework of embodiment provides an alternative approach to cognition, demonstrating the construction of knowledge as embodied, being dependent on the experiences and actions of the body.

(23)

The concept of embodiment has been applied in cognitive science and in psychology to describe acknowledging the mind as embedded in the body (Gallagher, 2011; Niedenthal et al., 2005). There are up to date different views describing and defining embodied cognition. These different perspectives framing the approaches and meanings of the concept range from radical embodiment to minimal embodiment and a large number of positions in between (Gallagher, 2011). Some researchers focus on the importance of action and bodily states as some emphasize equalizing embodied cognition with situational cognition (Goldman & de Vignemont, 2009; Kiverstein & Clark, 2009).

Embodied cognition approach is increasingly gaining empirical support (Wilson, 2002). Neuroscientific research has shown that the human brain can change both structurally and functionally. These changes have a direct connection to how we use our brain. Advocators of the idea of embodied cognition underline the role of sensory and motor functions in cognition itself. By observing the mind as based on the details of its sensory-motor embodiment, the proponents of this theory perceive cognitive skills as the product of a powerful interaction between neural and non-neural processes. From this viewpoint, there is no division between cognition, body, and real-world contexts. Indeed, the embodied cognition theories affirm that an organism’s body is integrated into cognitive processing. Therefore, the body naturally constrains, regulates, and shapes the nature of mental activity (Foglia & Wilson, 2013; Shapiro & Stolz, 2019).

In light of the interdependence between the body and the brain, there is value in investigating the relations our sensory and motor systems’ functions have with how we think, behave and act. Embodied cognition is about understanding the consequences of existing as a human body, thus the body does not only support but rather is an active element of cognitive processing (Davis & Markman, 2012). Above all, it demands an awareness of how we use our bodies in different situations interacting with the world.

4.2 Embodied cognition in education

Learning can be considered very simply as the processing of information from experience and updating the system (Barron et al., 2015), resulting in a shift on

(24)

some level in the individual who is experiencing the learning process. This learning does not only happen in the brain. For example, catching a ball as an outfielder in baseball, it may appear that the player is dependent on sophisticated cognitive operations, when in fact they are exploiting features of the environment in a way that reduces cognitive load. Catching a ball does not require mathematical knowledge on how to calculate where the ball will land based on the speed of it and the direction of it and the conditions of the field or the weather.

It would not even be efficient to be thinking those kinds of things when the ball is in the air - there is no time (Goldinger et al., 2016). The player is using perceptual embodied knowledge of the world, which he has been learning through practice.

Knowing where to run and when to catch the ball comes from a cognitive process that is embodied. Looking at the immense variety of issues to which an embodied perspective might be usefully applied, the natural question seems not to be whether embodied cognition might help to inform educational practices, but how.

As a model for learning, basing on the notion of an inseparable link between body, mind, and environment (Kosmas & Zaphiris, 2018), embodied cognition highlights that the body is not secondary to the mind but a constituent part of it. Research shows embodied cognition to be promising for learning effectiveness and needs to be considered in developing teaching and learning (Fugate et al., 2018).

Although research on embodied cognition is still in its early stage, the interdisciplinary nature of the studies provides some thought-provoking recommendations to improve educational practices (Shapiro & Stolz, 2019). One example is a study by Kosmas and colleagues (2019), where the embodied learning approach was examined through motion-based games in the classroom.

For four months, 52 elementary students participated in embodied learning in- class activities. Significant effects on both children’s cognitive abilities and academic performance were shown. Wellsby and Pexman (2014) examined the influence of previous bodily experience on children’s language processing using the body-object interaction (BOI) variable. As a variable, BOI demonstrates the simple way a human body can interact with a word’s referent. The results the study indicated were that older children (aged 8- 10 years) and adults showed an effect of BOI facilitatory for word naming, supporting the claim that embodied experience is relevant to children’s language processing. Embodied learning is the active process where changes and shifts are experienced in, through, with,

(25)

and because of the body of one’s self. Mindful attention towards this process facilitates cognition and learning (Munro, 2018). Bodily engagement and task integration are investigated dimensions of embodied learning (Skulmowski &

Rey, 2018). Learners can be seen as sensorimotor bodies, social beings and reflective minds, all of those simultaneously. Embodied orientation towards education provides alternative forms of teaching and learning where individuals can create personal and social meanings with the body and in the body (Nguyen

& Larson, 2015).

Nguyen and Larson (2015) explore the concept of embodied pedagogy in relation to curricular possibilities. They examine the subject through embodied pedagogy that attaches mind and body in a mental and physical act of knowledge construction which results in learning. They suggest a curriculum that applies learning strategies that incorporates physical awareness, environmental and social engagement and knowledge. Mindfulness-based approaches and practices, as stated in more detail in this paper earlier, have been studied to enhance self-awareness and awareness of the body (Hölzel et al., 2011; Raffone et al., 2010). Mindfulness practices could indeed have a lot to offer to complement the curricular possibilities of embodied pedagogy pointed by Nguyen and Larson (2015). They introduce two models of embodied consciousness in knowledge construction: mindful action and reflection. Under this perspective, using mindfulness practices is one way to execute this mindful action defined as awareness, concurrent with motion and sensation, in the school curriculum.

4.3 Understanding the effects of mindfulness practices through embodied cognition approach

The overall ideas of embodiment and mindfulness are interconnected in many ways, but the central understanding in both is that mind and body and senses are deeply connected (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Mindfulness, as a term, can be misleading, since mindfulness practices do not exclusively focus on the mind, but practising mindfulness is a bodily experience and an embodied state of being. Stephen and colleagues (2018) investigated the effect of a mindfulness meditation technique called Embodied Mindfulness Meditation (EMM). This is a body-oriented approach to meditation that requires the meditator to maintain awareness of one’s

(26)

self, grounded in the present moment and in the body, directing attention towards being in the body rather than objectifying or judging the body. In Stephen and colleagues’ study, the participants were suffering from chronic anxiety or generalized anxiety disorder. Data from the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire were collected in seven different countries with a total of 52 participants suffering from chronic anxiety. Over eight weeks' time, a series of mindfulness practices was provided. Anxiety levels decreased significantly (total 33,3%) from the onset to the end of the study and in addition to the two-month post-intervention period. When the onset and the end of the post-intervention period were compared, the decrease was 41.7%. Therefore, embodied mindfulness practices can be considered a useful approach within support strategies for someone suffering from chronic anxiety (Stephen et al. 2018).

Likewise, in a study about mindfulness and embodiment in the treatment of depression, Michalak and colleagues (2012) argued the body to be extremely relevant in treatment approaches based on mindfulness. In the treatment of depression, they assume bodily processes to be relevant on the basis of empirical findings and theoretical proposals and consider mindfulness-based approaches to be suitable to explore embodied dimensions of psychopathology. They argue that analysing the embodied effects of mindfulness approach would be a promising method to deepen the understanding of how mindfulness-based approaches work.

Embodied cognition point of view offers possibilities to investigate the topic researched in a new light. Khoury and colleagues (2017) propose the concept of embodied mindfulness as an underlying process to combine definitions of mindfulness and the role of the body in mindfulness approaches using evidence from neurobiology, proposing embodiment as a common process integrating different mindfulness practices. They argue embodied perspectives to be beneficial in the empirical study of mindfulness. In their article they indicate the mind-body interaction happening during meditation practice to be in line with relationships between neural events and conscious activity studied in embodiment. They conclude that evaluating and exploring the idea of their suggested embodied mindfulness could set an agenda for mindfulness research in the following years.

(27)

5 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

In this chapter, we start presenting the rationale grounding the present study and its research context. Following, the study’s aims, research questions and the hypothesis leading the analysis. By illuminating the context of the study, we provide the reader with a better understanding of the basis of this research and offer a more objective perspective to review our study’s aims, research questions, and execution process towards answering that research questions.

5.1 The present study

The purpose of this study was to find out what effects mindfulness practices in the classroom can have on students’ self-regulation and attention processes in the Finnish educational context. Observing and studying the actual situation gives us realistic results from the effects of the practice. We aimed to join the expanding and evolving discussion about the different, innovative practices and tools used in the natural classroom environment that can benefit learning in the school context. The present study sheds light to the situational processes in the classroom when a mindfulness practice is being implemented.

Even though the Finnish school system is recognised worldwide, and Finland has been crowned to be the happiest country in the world for the fourth year running (Helliwell et al., 2021), studies still suggest that Finnish students present signs of difficulties in school, which have profound implications on learning and overall development. For example, in a study of the Finnish National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), the Child Health Monitoring Development pilot study project (LATE-project), among other things, studied children in first, fifth and eighth grades with basic health checks. Various symptoms such as tension, restlessness or difficulties in concentrating were relatively common with children, especially in school-age (LATE 2010).

(28)

Moreover, THL has been collecting data to examine the health of Finnish children and adolescents with the School Health Survey (THL, 2017 & 2019) biennially starting from 1996. The latest survey was conducted in spring 2019 collecting the responses of more than 250,000 children and adolescents in 4th, 5th, 8th and 9th grades of primary level and the students in 1st and 2nd year of upper secondary and vocational education. In 2019, when asked about their studies, 18,8 % of the 8^th and 9^th grade students responded having relatively large or significant amounts of challenges following the lessons at school. Two years earlier the percentage of students responding similarly was 17,7 %. No questions about following the lesson or concentration were asked from the younger, 4th and 5th grade students. Nevertheless, the results of the survey provide clues of at least a slight increase in concentration problems and anxiety among school-aged children and adolescents in Finland.

The latest curriculum in Finland (OPS 2016) mentions the importance of social-emotional skills and in addition to these skills, goals are set for growth as a human being and as a citizen, self-care, everyday skills, transversal competence and intuitive thinking (Opetussuunnitelma 2016). Bringing mindfulness practices into the classroom as a tool for the teacher and students enables these critical skills to develop and makes the goals possible to achieve (Volanen, 2017). Physical education, ethics and social-emotional skills are learned at school, but the future school will also need other kinds of tools (Fowelin, 2011). Some mindfulness practices have been introduced in schools and classrooms in Finland informally and the range of mindfulness training for teachers is increasing. For instance, the project Healthy Learning Mind (2016) in Finland, while studies the effects of their intervention, also offers training for teachers on these mindfulness tools. Still, the research investigating this phenomenon and the effects and benefits of these mindfulness techniques is scarce. In addition, as stated in the light of previous research studying this topic, studying more embedded mindfulness practice in the context of school could give informative results of the effects. In this study, we are focusing on a class of students who are not targeted by an intervention but are investigated as a group of students who have been exposed to the mindfulness practices also prior to the conducted study and therefore we can argue that they would have already internalized the practice at least on some level. Indeed, there is a need for more

(29)

research. In this study, we offer more results on the effects of mindfulness practices in the educational field.

5.2 Aims, hypothesis and research questions

Mindfulness training has been studied to increase attention by bringing awareness to a particular attentional target (e.g. breath, external stimuli, thoughts, emotions). Mindfulness practice leads to noticing when the mind has wandered and then guiding focus to return to its object of attention by monitoring attention with cognitive flexibility. This kind of training with mindfulness practice increases the capability to maintain engagement of self-regulatory neural circuits, which results in enhancing sustained attention and regulation of emotions (Lutz et al., 2008; MacLean et al., 2010). These previous research results guide our hypothesis of the effects of the mindfulness practice at school. We hypothesize that the effects of a mindfulness practice are positive.

The aim of this study is to determine the effects of the mindfulness practice on the student’s attention and self-regulation, to investigate behavioural clues related to these concepts, and the student's self-assessed experience of their ability to concentrate and self-regulate in an actual classroom situation. Our research aims to follow this interest in order to provide an answer to these research questions:

1. What effects does the mindfulness practices have on the student’s self- regulation and attention processes?

2. Does it impact task resolution?

(30)

6 METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, we present methods used throughout this study. We present our research material, as well as the methods used to collect the data and in what methods the material was analysed with. In addition, we present how the study was conducted in practice and how our analysing process progressed and evolved. Qualitative research does not intend to give statistical generalisations.

Qualitative research methods are tied to the processive nature of the phenomenon in research. Findings are always local and historically changing so they cannot be seen as timeless and placeless. Qualitative research aims to give a detailed image of the subject of research (Eskola & Suoranta, 2008). This study introduces this particular case’s outcomes which can be reflected on previous studies and research on the field. To find the impacts of the mindfulness practices we are interested to see how the students’ behaviour changes in the research sessions. We are comparing what observable behaviours we can identify observing the class doing a mathematical problem-solving task without a mindfulness practice and after performing one. We are also measuring the students’ awareness of their own mindset and behaviour by using the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) self-evaluation form after each research session. At the end of the whole study, the students filled out a Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R) form to get an overall look at their self- awareness skills. Both of these forms are introduced in detail in this chapter.

6.1 Participants

Participants were 19 4^th grade students (average age 10 years old) from a Finnish primary school in the region of Pirkanmaa and their class teacher. This particular class was chosen due to the teacher’s experience in practising mindfulness with students during her classes and the possibility of scientifically investigating the effects of her practices in students’ self-regulatory behaviours in mathematics

(31)

classes. This class had been exposed to the practice for over a year before this study was conducted.

The participants were seated in the classroom (see Figure 1) randomly grouped in quartets by the teacher. Students could choose where to sit (stools, chairs or balancing balls), and what materials to use during the class, assuring that they had the opportunity to create the most comfortable environment possible for them.

FIGURE 1. Picture of the classroom

6.2 Data collection

The data of this research is a collection from several methods of collecting data.

This triangulation of data collection is used as a strategy to strengthen the validity through the convergence of the information collected from more than one source.

This is how we aim to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the studied phenomenon. The data is formed of video-recordings, self-evaluation forms and problem-solving tasks all gathered from a total of six times. The use of video-recordings as the main tool to collect data gives the researchers changeless access to the situation studied. Rewinding the video-recordings allows greater detail in the analysis of the material (Heath et al. 2010). To answer

(32)

our research questions, the video-recordings aim to give exact data about the behavioural clues of the students, the self-assessment tools aim to give a subjective point of view and addresses the question of self-regulation from the students’ perspective while the mathematical problem-solving tasks aim to give context and comparability of the situation the students are dealing with within the data collection sessions.

The data was collected in the students’ natural school and class environment. The first data collection included the presentation of the research and us researchers. Next sample times only the teacher of the class was overseeing the lessons and answering the students’ questions. The structure and content of the data collection were designed by the researchers. The structure simulated a regular lesson at a primary school and the students were seated in their everyday assigned places. All attempts were made not to affect the overall atmosphere or situation in the classroom so that the researchers were only by- spectators. Naturally, the situation was new to the students and not completely organic. The impact from the presence of the researchers and the cameras must be recognised in this study. What was not regulated by the researchers was the mindfulness practices performed by the class during these sample times. The teacher chose the practices she carried out with the students from her everyday exercise bank of mindfulness practices.

The aim of this study was to observe the real-life situation where the students use these mindfulness exercises as a normal part of their school days.

Therefore, keeping the teacher as a conductor of the lessons in the children’s eyes was necessary. The teacher had used these variable mindfulness techniques with the students every week in their day-to-day life. Hence the class was well-adjusted with the practices the teacher used during the research.

Each sampling time consisted of a problem-solving task in math and then an FMI (The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory) self-evaluation questionnaire after.

The mathematical problem-solving tasks were divided into 1-3 levels based on the students’ progress in the subject. Each student had approximately a maximum of ten minutes to complete the task. After finishing the task or running out of time, each student was given the FMI questionnaire to fill out. Three times out of six (study sessions 2, 4 and 6), the students participated in a mindfulness practice before beginning the mathematical problem-solving task. On the other

(33)

three times (study sessions 1, 3 and 5) no mindfulness practice was held before completing the problem-solving task. In addition to this, on the sixth and final time, the students filled a Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS- R) questionnaire.

The data only consisted of six different sample times, and from these six samples three are compared to the remaining three, even one sample missing from a student's data set could show in the results and would make it harder to analyse the data properly for it to give reliable results. In total, four students were absent in one, or more, study sessions and these students were excluded from the study. The remaining 15 student’s data sets were used in this study. One student (child 7) came late to class at one study session when the mindfulness practice was conducted and did not attend the practice but still performed the mathematical problem-solving task. The child was not absent and participated in all the study sessions, so their data were not excluded from the study, only the data from the time they did not attend the mindfulness practice were excluded.

With this participant, we have data of 3 sessions without the mindfulness practice and 2 with the mindfulness practice.

6.2.1 Video-recordings

All of the sessions were video-taped. The students were seated in four groups of four or five students, and four cameras were pointed to each of the tables. In addition, one camera was filming the entire classroom. The entirety of the sessions was taped each time from the beginning of the task or mindfulness practice to the end, when ten minutes was full, and when all of the students were asked to fill out the questionnaire. Recordings of the research sessions were the most important data gathered because with them we were able to analyse millisecond by millisecond the behavioural changes in the situation concentrating on each of the students one at a time individually and play the situations back multiple times to be sure to have the closest to correct interpretation of the situation.

Observation as a research method can give very layered and broad data (Vilkka, 2006) which can be a challenge for the researchers in interpreting the observable data. The benefits of observation as a way of collecting data are the

A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Self-Regulation in a Finnish Classroom

Heta Ojell & Maria Palohuhta