Global Competence Supporting Respect for People from other Cultures

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Mikko Mäntyneva

GLOBAL COMPETENCE SUPPORTING RESPECT FOR PEOPLE FROM OTHER CULTURES

Faculty of Education and Culture Master’s thesis March 2021

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ABSTRACT

Mikko Mäntyneva: Global Competence Supporting Respect for People from other Cultures Master’s thesis

Tampere University

Master’s degree Programme in Lifelong Learning and Education March 2021

In the recent PISA 2018 large-scale assessment, a perspective for assessing global competence was included.

Global competence focuses on building skills, knowledge, and abilities for students to live in an interconnected and multicultural society.

The main research problem was: Can students’ respect for people from other cultures be explained by curriculum and different concepts related to global competence introduced by OECD’s global competence framework? The main research problem was divided into three subproblems: (i) whether curriculum supporting global competence is associated with global competence related theoretical constructs (ii) whether global competence related theoretical constructs affect each other and (iii) whether global competence related theoretical constructs are associated with social justice and respect for people from other cultures.

The sample (n=180114) came from OECD’s PISA 2018 dataset that constitutes a representative sample of the 9th-grade students in 27 OECD countries that chose to participate in the global competence assessment.

However, not all OECD countries, including Finland, participated the PISA 2018 global competence assessment.

OECD’s global competence framework and related documentation was used to identify theoretical constructs. The existing literature covered in the theoretical framework was used to identify the contents of theoretical constructs and the relationships between them. The match between theoretical literature-based constructs and factors identified by exploratory factor analysis was checked. After checking the match, the identified factors were named. The factor structure was verified by confirmatory factor analysis. After this, a SEM model for the structural equation model was established to test the hypotheses based on the conceptual model developed in the theoretical framework of the thesis. Additionally, a sum variable measuring curriculum involving global competence was created and tested. The model fit indices indicate a good model fit for the proposed model. The data were analyzed with a structural equation model that was controlled by control variables indicating contacts with immigrants, a foreign parent, or a student being born abroad. Hypothesis testing revealed statistically significant relationships between constructs. It seems that curriculum covering global competence predicts awareness of global issues (β=0.186), interest in learning about other cultures (β=0.162). The empirical testing indicates that curriculum covering global competence does not directly improve respect for people from other cultures. Awareness about global issues predicts interest in learning about other cultures (β=0.249), which predicts attitudes towards immigrants (β=0.214). The most important predictors for respect for people from other cultures were interest in learning about other cultures (β=0.420) and attitudes towards immigrants (β=0.323). The controlling variables do not seem to have a major effect on latent variables included in the model.

In conclusion, there are many statistically significant relations between theoretically and empirically identified variables. Respect for people from other cultures can be supported by developing the level of global competence among students.

Keywords: global competence; curriculum; awareness of global issues; interest of learning about other cultures; attitudes towards immigrants; respect for people from other cultures; social justice; structural equation modeling; PISA

The originality of this thesis has been checked using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service.

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TIIVISTELMÄ

Mikko Mäntyneva: Global Competence Supporting Respect for People from other Cultures Pro gradu -tutkielma

Tampereen yliopisto

Elinikäinen oppiminen ja kasvatus Maaliskuu 2021

Vuoden 2018 PISA-tutkimuksessa oli uutena arvioitavana osa-alueena globaali osaaminen. Se liittyy opiskelijoiden tiedollisiin ja taidollisiin valmiuksiin elää keskinäisriippuvaisessa ja monikulttuurisessa yhteiskunnassa.

Päätutkimusongelmana oli: ”Onko muista kulttuureista tulevien ihmisen kunnioittaminen selitettävissä opetussuunnitelman sisällöllä ja OECD:n globaalin osaamisen viitekehykseen liittyvillä käsitteillä? Tämä päätutkimusongelma jakaantui kolmeen alaongelmaan: (i) onko globaalia osaamista tukevalla opetussuunnitelmalla myönteistä vaikutusta globaaliin osaamiseen liittyviin teemoihin (ii) vaikuttavatko globaaliin osaamiseen liittyvät teoreettiset käsitteet toisiinsa ja (iii) tukevatko globaaliin osaamiseen liittyvät käsitteet sosiaalista oikeudenmukaisuutta ja muista kulttuureista tulevien ihmisten kunnioitusta.

Tilastollinen aineisto (n = 180114) muodostui OECD:n PISA 2018 -datasta, joka muodostaa edustavan otoksen globaalia osaamista mittaavaan osioon osallistuneiden 27 OECD-maan 9. luokan oppilaista.

Tarkastelu kohdistui vain niihin 27 OECD-maahan, jotka osallistuivat globaalin osaamisen mittaamiseen.

Suomi ja muut Pohjoismaat Islantia lukuunottamatta eivät osallistuneet tähän globaalin osaamisen mittaamiseen.

OECD:n globaalin osaamisen viitekehystä ja siihen liittyvää dokumentaatiota käytettiin keskeisten teoreettisten käsitteiden tunnistamiseen. Teoreettisessa viitekehyksessä käsiteltyä kirjallisuutta käytettiin teoreettisten käsitteiden sisällön ja niiden välisten suhteiden tunnistamiseen. Teoreettisia rakenteita mittaavat faktorit tunnistettiin eksploratiivisella faktorianalyysilla. Tämän jälkeen näiden tunnistettujen faktoreiden ja teorian sisällöllinen yhteensopivuus vahvistettiin nimeämällä kyseiset faktorit. Kyseiset faktorirakenteet vahvistettin konfirmatorisella faktorianalyysilla. Lisäksi kehitettiin ja testattiin opetussuunnitelman sisältöä globaalin osaamisen näkökulmasta mittaava summamuuttuja. Tämän jälkeen luotiin rakenneyhtälömalli hypoteesien testaamiseksi tutkimuksen teoreettisessa viitekehyksessä kehitetyn käsitteellisen mallin perusteella. Mallin soveltuvuutta mittaavat eri tunnusluvut osoittavat, että malli kuvaa hyvin teoreettisessa viitekehyksessä esiteltyä mallia. Hypoteesit testattiin rakenneyhtälömallilla, johon kontrollimuuttujina liitettiin kontaktit maahanmuuttajiin, ulkomaalainen vanhempi ja onko oppilas syntynyt ulkomailla. Hypoteesitestaus paljasti useita tilastollisesti merkitseviä yhteyksiä eri muuttujien välillä.

Tutkimusaineiston analyysin perusteella globaalin osaamisen kattava opetussuunnitelma ennustaa oppilaiden tietoisuutta globaaleista kysymyksistä (β=0.186), kiinnostusta oppia muista kulttuureista (β=0.162).

Globaalin osaamisen kattava opetussuunnitelma ei suoraan lisää kunnioitusta muista kulttuureista tulevia ihmisiä kohtaan. Tietoisuus globaaleista kysymyksistä ennustaa kiinnostusta oppia muista kulttuureista (β=0.249), mikä puolestaan ennustaa oppilaiden asenteita maahanmuuttajia kohtaan (β=0.244). Tärkeimmät seikat, jotka ennustivat oppilaiden kunnioitusta muista kulttuureista tulevia ihmisiä kohtaan, olivat kiinnostus oppia muista kulttuureista (β=0.420) ja asenteet maahanmuuttajia kohtaan (β=0.323). Käytetyillä kontrollimuuttujilla ei vaikuttanut olevan suurta vaikutusta malliin sisältyviin piileviin muuttujiin.

Yhteenvetona voidaan todeta, että teoreettisesti ja empiirisesti tunnistettujen muuttujien välillä on useita tilastollisesti merkitseviä riippuvuuksia. Muista kulttuureista tulevien ihmisten kunnioitusta voidaan tukea kehittämällä oppilaiden globaalia osaamista.

Asiasanat: globaali osaaminen, opetussuunnitelma, tietoisuus globaaleista kysymyksistä, kiinnostus oppia muista kulttuureista; asenne maahanmuuttajiin, kunnioitus muista kulttuureista tulevia ihmisiä kohtaan, sosiaalinen oikeudenmukaisuus, rakenneyhtälömalli, PISA

Tämän julkaisun alkuperäisyys on tarkastettu Turnitin OriginalityCheck -ohjelmalla.

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Education and global competence

Students are a part of a global interconnected and interdependent community (Myers, 2010). Globalization increases dynamics of interconnectivity, enhanced mobility, and reconfiguration of space and time. Hicks (2003) argues that during previous decades, global citizenship education has been linked to environment, economic development, intercultural relations, peace, economy, technology, and human rights. However, globalization and the global interconnectedness has progressed during the past two decades so there could be fresh thinking on what global citizenship education is and should be all about. OECD's¹ inclusion of global competence within its PISA² 2018 and related reporting is one meaningful achievement to generate further progress and advancement to global competence related education (see OECD 2020).

Noddings (2005) argues that a global citizen is interested in social and economic justice, supports world peace and is concerned with the welfare of a globe, region, or a nation. Wood (2008) is sceptic towards global citizenship while he argues that there are no formal political structures at the global level that citizenship could be part of. However, I would consider that Wood’s literal focus on citizenship may lead to wrong avenues.

To some extent, global competence is related to being a citizen of the world.

The concept of global citizenship has been raised along with global consciousness, global laws, global ethics, and codification of international human rights (Dower & Williams, 2003; Gaudelli, 2009). Global citizenship is included in the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (Auld & Morris, 2019).

This is one perspective promoting OECD to assess global competence among

1 OECD stands for Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development it has 37 member countries from all over the world. OECD’s PISA is participated also by many other countries.

2 PISA stands for Program for International Student Assessment

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15-year-old students. Even if OECD’s PISA 2018 highlights global competence, Pike (2008) argues that global citizenship as a concept was popularized after World War II and after that global education has re-emerged. Bourn (2016) considers global citizenship more as a metaphorical phenomenon, in which a person who is living on globe should be able to participate and contribute to its wellbeing and development.

According to Nussbaum (2002), global citizenship consists of three competences. The first one relates to a student's ability to critically reflect on one’s own culture and habits. The second competence relates to students' relationship to a larger global community. The third competence supporting global citizenship relates to a student's ability to empathize with other inhabitants of the global community.

Reimers (2009) argues that global competence is related to issues of global importance. It promotes student’s positive engagement with historical and cultural differences of other people and in-depth knowledge of global and often interconnected issues. He also emphasizes the ability to speak foreign languages as one issue related to global competence. Merrill, Braskamp and Braskamp (2012) define global competence as acquisition of knowledge, attitudes, and skills important to intercultural communication and holistic development of more complex epistemological processes, identities, and interpersonal relations.

Deardorff (2011) asserts that global competence should be continuously integrated into student’s overall learning related experiences and contents. Also, educators should assess and thus reflect on the development of a student's global competence. Shams and George (2006) also include global mindset, intercultural competence, global citizenship, and intercultural sensitivity as topics related to global competence. However, they emphasize that it is difficult to identify specific components of global competence.

OECD intends to support their member countries’ educational policies so that economic development is also supported. This is one reason, but not the only one, for educating for global competence, because it improves employability and social cohesion. In a globalized world this means that young people are required to understand the complex dynamics related to globalization. This also means that people should be able to be open and communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds and demonstrate respect and thus build trust

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between diverse teams in a workplace. Also, it can be considered that enhancing students’ global competence can help them comprehend current developments in the world and interact responsibly with other people online. (OECD, 2020) The OECD framework for global competence is divided into four dimensions: 1) Understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, 2) Engage in open, appropriate and open interactions across cultures, 3) take action for collective well-being and sustainable development, and 4) Examine local, global, and intercultural issues. Each of these four dimensions of global competence are supported by four inseparable factors: knowledge, skills, attitudes and values (OECD, 2020).

1.2 Research gap

Some countries involved with a major influx of immigrants are framing global citizenship in more multicultural terms. For example, countries like the United States, Israel and China which are high in nationalism tend to apply global citizenship education as a tool for maintaining their status (Engel, 2014). This means that there probably will be difficult to establish a uniform definition in the future as well. However, even if this may prove to be difficult this important topic should be studied further.

Schools have an important role in helping students to develop their skills, knowledge and abilities and prepare themselves for a more globalized and interconnected world. This also includes that students’ ability to comprehend their place in the community and the world can be enhanced. The core idea for the requirement of global competence is to promote cultural awareness as well as respectful interactions between various people in increasingly diverse societies (OECD, 2020). Global citizenship is a vague concept. One example of this is that eight different conceptions of global citizenship has been used in literature (Oxley

& Morris, 2013). While global citizenship is used differently in across nations, it is represented differently also in school curricula (Goren & Yemini, 2017). Even if global citizenship as a concept is difficult to define, it is among the fastest growing trends in education (Chong, 2015; MacKenzie et al., 2016). Global citizenship is included in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (Auld & Morris, 2019). This is one perspective promoting OECD to assess global competence

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among 15-year-old students. As can be interpreted from the previous sentence, there is still a need to refine the concept of global competence with academic research.

1.3 Objective of the research

This thesis focuses on studying global competence, curriculum supporting its development and increased social justice and respect for people from other countries as an outcome of global competence. A more detailed research problem and theory-based hypotheses are introduced in Chapter 2.7 after the related theoretical concepts are covered and a conceptual framework is introduced.

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2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter focuses on creating a conceptual background for the empirical testing. First, the central theoretical constructs are introduced. Finally, a proposal for a conceptual model integrating these introduced theoretical constructs is introduced.

2.1 Curriculum supporting global competence

In a globalizing and more interconnected world, students should be educated to be informed and capable global citizens (Reimers, 2009). Davies (2006) seems to be somewhat frustrated with the lack of action around global citizenship. He encourages more radical and even politicized discussions on the contents of the curriculum related to the topic. In literature, there are suggestions for the contents of global citizenship education. Among others, Tuomi, Jacott and Lundgren (2008) propose that it should include topics like human rights, peace, media, intercultural dialogue, international relations, and cosmopolitan citizenship. This allows students to connect theory to practical knowledge on global issues (Steger

& Wahlrab, 2016). Global citizenship can be considered as an important attribute for students so that they can cope with globalization and the challenges related to it. This can be considered as one reason to include global education in the normal curriculum of the school (Le Roux, 2001; Pike, 2008; Reimers, 2009).

Shams and George (2006) argue that a globally-competent student can demonstrate knowledge of world geography, conditions, and events. However, this is not enough but having awareness of the complexity and interdependency of the global issues and events and historical background of the current world system. Unesco (2015) attempts to provide guidelines and learning objectives for global citizenship education. Students' sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity should be encouraged. This includes interconnectedness between the local community, the national community, and

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the global community. Also, political, economic, social, and cultural interdependence should be emphasized.

Global competence has been related to concepts such as global education, global perspectives in education, and world-centered education (Kirkwood, 2001). While defining global competence as a concept there seems to be challenges while subject matter seems to be evolving and ever-changing.

According to Deardorff (2011) the definitions for global competence vary depending on context, experiences and interpretations. However, in case the definition of global competence varies, this probably has its effect on national level curriculums. This is expected to be the case even if there would be an attempt to include curriculum such topics that support developing global competence among students.

The educational policy in the Nordic countries emphasizes equality among students. The intention is to provide the same education for all as minimizing social differences between students (Imsen et al., 2017). In Finnish curricular discourse, it seems that there is a clear approach that all students have multi- layered and multicultural identities. Holm and Zilliacus (2009) argue that globalization and the increase in cultural and linguistic diversity are such societal changes to the Finnish National Core Curriculum. They were interested to identify potential differences between Finland and Sweden. There seems to be a difference between the national curriculums. The Finnish national curriculum includes students’ global identity through world citizenship. Also, multiculturalism is considered as richness in the Finnish curriculum. In this research the data collection in 2018 focused on the older version of Finnish national curriculum. The new curriculum emphasizes these issues even further. The Swedish national curriculum, as a comparison, does not cover global citizenship that well (Holm &

Zilliacus, 2009).

Students should learn skills to be able to interact within a diverse society (Frey & Whitehead, 2009). Multicultural curriculum-related reform may take alternative approaches (Banks, 1993). Among these, the integration may move from total integration to no integration at all. In multicultural education, cultural diversity is at the center of teaching (Aydin, 2013). In practice, this means that students are taught about themselves and the diversity that exists around them.

However, it should be taken into account that between different countries the

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amount of diversity varies. Some countries are more homogeneous than others.

Also, within national borders, the amount of diversity varies. In some areas within a country, there is more diversity than in the others. While this occurrence of diversity may vary in students' everyday lives, this issue has its effect on the national curriculum as well. This is important while the national curriculum still guides the objectives, contents, and delivery of teaching.

The curriculum has its effect whether it supports the development of a student's global competence or not. When focusing on including global citizenship and global competence education in the curriculum a country could consider four different stages to multicultural curriculum reform proposed by Banks (2008). These stages are the contributions, ethnic additive, transformative, and social actions approach. The first one of these (the contributions approach) is the basis, not reflecting that much involvement in multicultural education. The ethnic additive approach is such that content, concepts, themes, and perspectives are included in the curriculum. However, the basic structure of the curriculum is left untouched. The structure of the curriculum is changed in the transformation approach. Also, the students are encouraged to consider different issues, themes, concepts, and problems from different cultural and ethnic perspectives and viewpoints. The fourth approach introduced by Banks (2008) focuses on initiating social action among students. Besides just teaching students to understand and question social issues they are also encouraged to act and do something about it.

Multicultural education should promote a learning community, which has democratic values and beliefs so that an intercultural society with mutual respect between people can be created (Gay, 2000). Multicultural education intends to promote democratic values affirming cultural pluralism by teaching and learning (Ameny-Dixon, 2004). Gay (2004) asserts that there are several distinctions between multicultural curriculum and general curriculum. The following issues should be considered: conceptual paradigms, methodologies, and variables of analysis in development. A multicultural curriculum should include the fundamental substantive components of multicultural education and related implementation methods and strategies (Kridel, 2010).

Curriculum and its orientation affect the degree to which subjects like social studies or foreign languages are intercultural (Davies et al., 2005). Problems like

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social justice, poverty, and environmental sustainability may take different forms and approaches in global education, some of them are connected to traditional topics within the curriculum and some are more innovative combinations of them (Noddings, 2005; Pike, 2008). Davies (2006) suggests that global citizenship can be part of the normal curriculum. DiCicco (2016) encourages the addition of new content to global citizenship education. She posits that integration and implementation of courses have to be done carefully to meet the objectives of a globally-infused curriculum.

2.2 Students’ awareness of global issues

It can be considered that when people know what is happening in different parts of the world this could increase their awareness and empathy towards people living or originating from these countries and places of the world. One basis assumption behind OECD’s global competence framework is that we are living in a globalizing world. There are different kinds of social, political, environmental, cultural, and health-related interactions between people living in different parts of the world. During their studies, students’ global competence should be increased so that they can grow as global citizens. One important aspect of this is to increase their awareness on global issues affecting different parts of the world differently, but still, due to various interactions and connections between countries and regions, these phenomena have a global effect. Here are the topics related to OECD’s PISA 2018 Student questionnaire’s question related to awareness of global issues are covered by focusing on the following themes:

climate change and global warming, global health, migration, international conflicts, hunger or malnutrition, poverty, and gender equality.

The levels of greenhouse gases are at the highest level ever. This is a root cause of climate change which affects climate and weather patterns in different places of the world. Often this development is called global warming, but the outcomes vary in different places on earth. Humanity has an increasing pressure to alleviate the outcomes of climate change. This will increase sea levels and grow deserted areas. Also, still unpredictable outcomes can be expected since climate change affects ecosystems, not just single issues like individual species or plants. Climate change can cause intense storms and rains. The heat may also

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cause drier droughts which is problematic to farming and food production.

Education has a major role in building knowledge about climate change and what kind of measures could be developed to counteract it (Corner et al., 2012; Monroe et al., 2019). When it comes to global warming and climate change it seems that there are still misconceptions and confusions (Shepardson et al., 2009). In practice, this means that the school curriculum and media should cover these topics even further.

As COVID-19 pandemic has shown that global pandemics may have severe outcomes for people’s everyday lives while spreading quickly across the world.

However, there are also more local global health issues like malaria and child survival. In some parts of the world infectious diseases combined with existing inequalities in health care may increase illnesses and mortality. These may cause people willing to leave their home regions and become immigrants in countries in other parts of the world.

Since the first humans, there has been migration. The reasons for migration differ from case to case. For some, it is a necessity, and some migrate out of choice. Some people migrate to avoid persecution, terror, or human rights violations, while others migrate while searching for economic opportunities and work. Adverse effects of climate change and potential natural disasters may also cause an increased level of migration. For example, in case the climate will become warmer in Africa, this may increase migration for example to Europe.

Migration shows also in schools while the diversity of students increases. Some of the students are migrants, i.e., born in another country while some of the students are themselves born in the country, but their parents are migrants. When it comes to multiculturalism and cultural diversity migration is an important factor.

The sustainable development goals of the United Nations aim to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people. (English & Mayo, 2019).

International conflicts, like the current conflict in Syria, are multifaceted processes. There may be several participating counties. Some of them may be more active while the others remain passive but still like to promote their interests.

The interests of various conflict participants will clash sooner or later. Some of the international conflicts become hostile wars while others remain more peaceful political conflicts. Most parties communicate that their agenda is justified, and

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thus it requires media-related skills to observe what is happening. Political conflicts affect some groups of population and they may be obliged to flee potential aggressors. This does not include only individuals but maybe also their families and even extended families. (Hierro & Gallego, 2018).

The world population has been growing during past centuries. Population growth is not the only reason for hunger and malnutrition, but the scarce resources are now shared by more people than ever before. In the world, the inequality around food production and consumption has led to a situation that lots of food-related resources are wasted while others do not have enough food to cover their nourishment related needs. (Torres-León et al., 2018).

There are many aspects when it comes to poverty. On some occasions, poverty is considered relative. In this sense, there is poverty in all countries.

However, those who are poor in low-income countries have much less to spend than those who are poor in rich countries. Although poverty has diminished during past decades, still about 10 percent of the world's population can be considered to be living in extreme poverty (World Bank, 2018).

Elements of poverty can be divided into internal and external (Schleicher et al., 2018). Children surrounded by poverty may believe that they have no purpose in their lives or value. External elements related to poverty may be addressed by learning skills that support living, build infrastructure and in that way gain access to clean water and sewage and provide shelter, sewage system, access to health care and educational opportunities for children are important. It may be that there is a belief in the culture that since grandparents and parents have lived in poverty also the children are destined to live in poverty (Corak, 2006). Internal elements of poverty may be tackled by building self-respect among people. This is also an important perspective that people are feeling respected by themselves but also by other people. Also, peace, social capital, and participatory government are important issues while fighting against poverty.

In a country like Finland where women got unrestricted right to vote as first in the world, it may be clear that there is lots of potential in women and girls.

However, in many countries, half of the potential is lost by a lack of gender equality. While empowering women also economic development is supported which also decreases poverty. Women’s and girls’ access to education, health care, work, and participation in political life is important. (Ortenblad et al., 2017).

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Arguedas et al. (2016) studied 4th graders and their emotion awareness and their motivation and engagement in learning. Their findings indicate that there is a significant positive correlation between emotion awareness and motivation and engagement in learning. This finding could imply that the there is a positive relationship between awareness and interest of learning. The themes covered above are all global issues that students’ as global citizens should be aware of.

Schools and educators have their role while making students aware of these themes and potential root causes behind them.

2.3 Students’ interest in learning about other cultures

When it comes to students’ interest in learning about other cultures in different regions of the world it can be assumed that students' motivation is important whether they want to learn about different regions of the world and how people live there. Among cultural understanding also topics like what kind of traditions different people have and how they see the world and themselves. There may be cultural stereotypes linked to different groups of people. However, intercultural sensitivity is about accepting and being curious about others diverse beliefs (Hunter et al., 2006). Various social groups may have different practices when it comes to religion and faith. Often this is related to the cultural histories of various social groups.

There are alternative and complementary methods of increasing cultural understanding and awareness (Baker, 2011). One way to learn from other cultures is to understand different geographies and how they are associated for example when it comes to religion, climate, economics, language, race, natural resources, food, sports, and so on. Travel allows the experience of new cultures (Morgan & Xu, 2009). This may expose people to new languages, sounds, sights, smells, foods, and textures. Modern technology allows also virtual travel, which also expands students’ opportunities to explore the world and different cultures.

This may open up new insights and experiences while interacting with people from different cultural or ethnic backgrounds. On a societal level, ethnic and racial divisions may be harmful. This may lead to misunderstandings, lack of opportunities to interact, and even violence.

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Overall cultural knowledge is important. To achieve cultural empathy towards other cultures it is important to know a student’s own culture. This provides perspective and thus makes it easier to make sense of other cultures (Reimers, 2009). In the early stage of interaction with new foreign cultures, there may be initial confusion, but this should be accepted. Interaction with people from different backgrounds broadens perspective and builds cultural awareness.

Being able to maintain a non-judgmental mindset while observing cultural differences is important while learning to understand cultural differences and embracing them. Not-being open-minded limits interaction and getting further information on other cultures.

Interest in learning about other cultures has probably something to do with a critical understanding of culture and culture-related knowledge. Being open to influences from other world views and cultures is important. Students’ willingness to engage with other cultures supports their learning from other cultures and understanding people representing various cultural backgrounds. (Barrett et al., 2014; Clark & Seider, 2017; Council of Europe, 2018).

Intercultural understanding is about sociocultural differences and how they are understood by individuals or by groups (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). These sociocultural differences deal mainly with power relations, practices, and positions. Power relations deal with possible interactions between dominant and non-dominant cultures. Social positions may have their effect on intercultural understanding. These social positions and related statuses may be for example related to religion, age, gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, immigration, or the socio-economic class of parents. It is not self-evident that people have adequate flexibility on being open and appreciating different forms of both social and cultural diversity. (Ward & Kennedy, 1999)

When students are aware of other cultures, it helps them to have more meaningful interactions with people representing other cultures (Earley, 2002).

Interaction with people from other cultures makes them being exposed to beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that may be different from the ones of a student’s own.

This may increase the appreciation of people that have a different cultural background. While learning from other cultures students also realize that there are alternative approaches to life. Expanding one’s perspective on other cultures may allow students to enrich their lives as well. Communicating and interacting

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with people are important to increase awareness of other cultures. When it comes to communication, language and verbal communication are not the only way of communicating. Also, non-verbal communication like body language and gestures are an important part of communication (Phutela, 2015). This may also allow viewing a person’s own life from a different perspective and thus establish new approaches to thinking and solving problems.

Each person’s background includes some kind of biases, which may limit objective observation of their own values and beliefs (Wilson & Dunn, 2004).

What are those assumptions people have when it comes to other people representing the same background? Acknowledging these issues may affect how people representing other cultures are approached and understood. Inductive reasoning is based on the assumption that in case one person representing a certain cultural or ethnic background does not justify concluding that all persons with a similar background are similar when it comes to beliefs, thoughts, or actions. Stereotyping people based on their cultural background is about to lead to wrong conclusions. People are different from each other and in such a sense have their unique habits, opinions, ways of life, and so on. Stereotyping leads to generalizations and not treating people as individuals. (Wilson & Dunn, 2004)

Media may bring some additional insights on what is happening in other parts of the world, but also a person’s own media-related choices may filter out certain content (Happer & Philo, 2013). New technologies make people of the world more connected and thus would allow more interaction with people representing other cultural backgrounds either in a person’s own country and livelihood or across geographies and national borders.

Cultural diversity is not a new thing. It has taken several millennia to develop. Cultures relate to people’s way of living and relate to shared language, values, beliefs, behaviors, norms, and material objects. People are not independent of their cultural background. Parents pass their culture either intentionally or unintentionally to representatives of the next generation – their children.

Culture shapes people’s identity and influences their beliefs and behavior.

Learning from other cultures can be an enriching experience while it expands views on various things including things like music, food, religion, language, politics, and the everyday lives of people. It can be assumed that in a connected

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world, cultural understanding builds bridges between people and thus develops peaceful coexistence. Culture is a strength, but it can also be a limiting factor. In a way, it is a lens through which people evaluate what is happening in their surroundings. What is normal in some cultures may be abnormal in others. What is proper in some cultures may be improper in some others. Judging others based on a person’s own culture may lead to outcomes that people representing different cultural, ethnic, racial, or other backgrounds are some kind of bad (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2009). Peace supports growth and prosperity while hostility is about to create hostility and destruction of wealth and opportunities.

The global interconnected world is culturally diverse. This creates a need that to be able to live and operate in an interconnected world, students have to develop their global competence. Naturally, schools as educational institutions have a major role in this. In modern societies, it may be that some parents may give at least some responsibility for educating their children to schools. Cultural studies in education support understanding the relationship between power and knowledge, and challenge potentially disempowering social practices, while simultaneously providing means and resources to resist potential oppression and discrimination (Hytten, 2006). However, it may be assumed that parents have also a major role while developing the global competence of new generations.

Lustig and Koester (2006) assert that in societies there are demographic, economic, technological, and peace-related objectives related to developing competence in intercultural encounters and interactions. In a multicultural society, it can be considered that people representing different cultural and ethnic backgrounds contribute by providing new ways of thinking and different experiences. This allows people to contribute to the larger society and reach their full potential. Global competence of students reduces cultural insensitivity, bias, or prejudice.

Diversity is more than tolerating differences among people (Danso, 2018).

In a connected world demographics of different countries diversify. This means that there is not necessarily a more homogeneous population, but a multicultural and thus heterogeneous population. Students should gain skills, knowledge, and abilities to sustain themselves in culturally diverse societies. (Lustig et al., 2006).

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Learning about other cultures is learning about the homelands of people, their traditions, languages, religion, communities, and so on (Gay, 2018). In traditional homogeneous culture beliefs and assumptions may dictate what is right or wrong. However, in diverse and heterogeneous communities people have to challenge their assumptions, biases, and beliefs. This provides opportunities for personal growth. Global competence among students is important while cultural diversity is increasing in countries, workplaces, and schools. Being interested in learning about other cultures is about to increase an individual’s cultural sensitivity. In case a student is more mindful about learning their own culture this may encourage learning from other cultures in the future.

Being knowledgeable about global issues is supposed to increase a person’s ability to become more empathetic while seeing the world and other people from a different perspective. Intercultural training may enhance knowledge, but it does not change behavior and attitudes (Mendenhall et al., 2004). Ruokonen and Kairavuori (2012) have studied the intercultural sensitivity of the Finnish ninth graders. They argue that Finnish students are growing in the direction of ethnorelativism. El Sayed (2020) defines ethnorelativism as intercultural sensitivity. Ruokonen and Kairavuori (2012) suggest that informal cultural learning environments of the society should be used to help students to understand what is core to the Finnish and European cultural identities. Also, they propose that arts education could be used to communicate cultural identities and internationalism.

Walker (2006) argues for social justice related policy-making in education.

According to her social justice can be enhanced by motivating students on learning on other cultures and empathizing other people and their situation. This education policy may also affect student's interest on learning other cultures and thus support social justice.

The interest in learning from other cultures supports the understanding of people representing other cultures and thus facilitates cooperation and collaboration with them. Intercultural competence requires knowledge, motivation, skills in both verbal and non-verbal communication aligned with appropriate and effective behaviors (Lustig et al., 2006). Intercultural competence can be defined as the ability to effectively and appropriately interact in an intercultural situation or context (Bennett, 2009; Lustig et al., 2006; Perry &

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Southwell, 2011). Another perspective on intercultural competence is tolerance for ambiguity, behavioral flexibility, communicative awareness, respect for others, empathy, and knowledge discovery (Hiller & Woźniak, 2009).

Being interested in learning from other cultures is a broad topic. Different cultures reflect various practices, beliefs, and norms in people’s everyday lives.

People probably find comfort in familiarity. However, this search for familiarity may lead to preference on homogeneity and similarity. Homogeneous stereotypes may lead to such thinking that certain cultures are bad. However, gaining an understanding of different cultures may lead to a conclusion that own fears are unfounded. Being open to new cultures challenges this preference of similarity. Being open to heterogeneous cultural backgrounds may create opportunities for mental growth. Without being open and thus interested in learning about other cultures limits this opportunity for growth.

2.4 Attitudes towards immigrants

While globalization has progressed in different regions of the world, also immigration has increased. The native population in new countries of immigrants has a choice whether to be inclusive or exclusive towards the new inhabitants (Hainmueller & Hopkins, 2015; Janmaat, 2014). The attitudes towards immigrants are playing a major part while immigrants consider whether they feel welcome to the new country.

Students’ attitudes towards people representing other cultures are not formed in a vacuum. However, schools as educational institutions may have a major effect on young people’s attitudes towards others. Attitudes mean the mindset that a student adopts towards other people, issues, institutions, behaviors, or symbols (OECD, 2020). Global competence emphasizes an open attitude towards people representing other cultures. This kind of attitude can be developed by education implicitly by a curriculum including cultural issues and explicitly by a learner-centered and participative education (OECD, 2020).

Openness supports interaction between people representing other cultural backgrounds. Also, sensitivity, curiosity, and willingness to interact with other people are important issues related to openness (Barrett, 2016; Byram, 2008).

Attitudes towards immigrants do not always resemble openness, respect for other

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people and their cultures, ability to understand perspectives, traditions, and behaviors from other cultures.

One example affecting attitudes towards immigrants could be that in case there is already unemployment in the country, then immigrants may be considered as competitors for scarce jobs (Mayda, 2006). On the other hand, it may be considered what is the effect of immigration on public spending and finances (Facchini & Mayda, 2009). In case the native-born population considers that their share of collected taxes is rising because of the benefits allocated to the immigrants, then there may be argumentation and behavior against immigration. This may also provide ground for populist political movements among the native-born population.

It is reasonable to expect that not all social, environmental or other major problems can be solved. However, it is a matter of making it possible for different people to live with dignity. When an agency is concerned regarding global issues it relates to a worldview in which the individual is connected to the world community and feels a sense of responsibility for the people belonging to the same community. Boix Mansilla (2016) asserts that agency is linked to willingness to care about how different global and environmental issues affect future generations.

Equal opportunities are a basis for welfare and social policy in Nordic countries. However, these equal opportunities are not necessarily shared among all people living in a country. Due to perceived discrimination in society, it may be that equal opportunities are not seen equally. For immigrant students, this increase in perceived discrimination may indicate a heightened sensitivity towards issues of discrimination (Verkuyten & Thijs, 2013). Equal leveling is important in demonstrating intercultural openness while engaging, interacting, and co-operating with people representing different cultural affiliations (OECD, 2020).

Values are guiding people’s behaviors and affect their attitudes. Cultural competence assumes that a person's values, beliefs, and behaviors are not the only correct ones (OECD, 2020). Therefore, it is important to focus on values that people use as a basis of evaluation criteria and standards people use in their decisions and judgments concerning even everyday lives. Values may have both

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conscious and unconscious effects on judgments in different kinds of situations.

(OECD, 2020)

It could be considered that respecting and valuing cultural diversity is related to respecting other people's dignity and core rights. Multicultural norms are linked with respective interethnic attitudes among non-immigrant students (Thijs &

Verkuyten, 2013). It could be considered that even if peoples’ values are important there can be recognized a hierarchy between values. As discussed above both cultural diversity and human rights are very important. However, in case these values would conflict with each other, then valuing core human rights should be emphasized instead of the value of cultural diversity (OECD, 2020).

This approach of applying a hierarchy among different values would solve potential conflicts.

Some societies are diverse, and some are more homogeneous. Whether immigrants can integrate or assimilate to the everyday living of their host countries and how they interact with native-born populations is not clear (Burns

& Gimpel, 2000). The outcome may be that the immigrants are remaining in their circles and contacts and the native-born vice versa. This does not promote cohesive interaction in a society. Cultural diversity climate characterized by equality and inclusion can be observed with a likelihood of interethnic contacts and friendships between immigrant and non-immigrant students (Jugert et al., 2011).

Turner and Brown (2008) studied the impact of an intervention intended to generate more positive attitudes toward refugees. The intervention was a project, not part of curriculum. The program was designed especially for 9-11-year -old students. They conclude that the project had a positive short-term impact on student's attitudes towards refugees. However, the imply that the positive impact for attitudes towards refugees lasted only several weeks. Based on the findings of Turner and Brown (2008) it could be concluded that short term projects as interventions are not a solution, and therefore a longer-term orientation, i.e.

embedding students' attitudes towards refugees to overall curriculum should be considered.

Schools have their role while creating a connection between native-born and immigrant populations (Bilgili, 2019). In case children can integrate well that can be assumed to improve the integration of their parents as well. Values affect

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and motivate behaviors and attitudes. While trying to cultivate values related to inclusion, co-operation, non-violence, and peace it is important to consider what kind of education supports these values. Whether the societies can also in the future remain cohesive and harmonious is to be seen.

2.5 Social justice and respect for people from other cultures

While demographics are changing in a global society, educators' task is to support the educational achievement of students from different backgrounds (Ameny-Dixon, 2004). What is important from the perspective of developing multicultural knowledge is to understand diverse cultures and oppressed groups (Pope et al., 2019). When it comes to the dimensions of multicultural education the dimensions of awareness, knowledge of diverse cultures and groups, and skills to work effectively with students from different cultural backgrounds (Gaston Gayles & Kelly, 2007). Multicultural competence is not enough to prepare students to promote educational equity and limit oppressive power structures Iverson (2012). This means that social justice education intends to promote socially just practices in society (Gorski, 2009).

It could be considered that social justice and equality are principal aims of intercultural education. However, social justice is a broad concept, and it is often used as an umbrella term without a particular theoretical framework (Mikander et al., 2018). As a concept social justice is seen as ambiguous (Boylan & Woolsey, 2015; Cochran-Smith, 2009). Social justice is closely related to democracy and equality. It can be considered that democratic citizens promote justice and avoid harming or exploiting others (Parker, 2003). One of the broadest definitions of social justice is that it is a part of a democratic way of life (Apple & Beane, 2007).

Even if the conceptual discourse around social justice is diverse it could be considered that social justice promotes building connections and developing alliances so that we are better able to focus on a social justice agenda in education and society (Hytten & Bettez, 2011).

Educational research should include the school reality in a social context (Mikander et al., 2018). Schools intending to promote social justice promote inclusion and equity, develop reciprocal community relationships, and hold equally high expectations for all students regardless of their ethnic or social

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background (Carlisle et al., 2006). Social justice education promotes basic human rights and dignity. These are about to foster social change (Grant &

Gibson, 2013).

Garza (2004) argues that social justice is an attitude. He argues for need for more policies supporting social justice leadership. This would also include policies supporting social justice training in schools. This can also be interpreted so that student's attitudes have an effect on social justice.

Finland is internationally known for its emphasis on equality, equity, and social justice in education (Sahlberg, 2011). Actually, since the establishment of the Finnish basic education system (peruskoulu), it can be considered that the idea of equality has been present in Finnish educational policies and related politics (Lappalainen & Lahelma, 2016).

Schools are encouraged to develop justice-oriented citizens who can engage in collective strategies for change and who look at social and other problems systematically (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004). Social justice in education can be considered both as a process and as a goal (Adams et al., 2007). The Finnish social and educational policy emphasizes agency so that all members and groups in society could participate fully and equally. Characteristics to social justice education is that it encourages students to participate and take an active role in their studies (Hackman, 2005). Social justice-related education deals with issues like critical multicultural education, democratic education, and critical pedagogy (Dower & Williams, 2003). It has evolved in reaction to such approaches of multicultural education concentrating more on issues related to cultural diversity rather than systemic change (McDonald & Zeichner, 2009).

Educators often share some kind of commitment to social justice (Novak, 2000). Social justice education does not come with ease. It is not always clear what kind of measures should be taken (Moule, 2005). There are many elements to be included in the curriculum and integrated into teaching practices. Among these are culture, languages, race, ethnicity, disability, history, socioeconomic status, all students’ experiences, ways of being and knowing, learning styles, and communities of origin (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2020). This is a major challenge for educators, who also have to master the learning content.

Culture can be considered as a key to understanding social categorizations and intersectionality. Intersectionality means a focus on how various aspects of

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identity inter-relate and affect people’s social relationships and lives in general (Anthias, 2011). What comes to the relationship between cultural studies and social justice education it could be considered that cultural studies establish a social justice praxis, which intervenes institutional, socio-political, and cultural arrangements, events, and directions (Wright, 2015). It may be that a student’s cultural background is considered to have a determining effect on the student’s choices and behavior (Gorski, 2016). Social justice education is also relevant in communities and classrooms that are considered homogeneous or privileged (Sleeter, 2014). Finnish national curriculum refers to students’ cultural backgrounds. This means that all students are defined as multicultural (Mikander et al., 2018). The relationship between students and their cultural background is within the focus of intercultural education. However, Dervin (2015) encourages focusing more on the topic of ”inter” rather than ”culture”.

Politics has its own effect on education as well. In different countries, multiculturalism has its connotations. Commitment to social justice does not equal commitment to multiculturalism (Kumagai & Lypson, 2009). In multicultural societies traditions and cultures from people originating from other cultures and countries are recognized and even celebrated. In the rhetorical discourse of social justice, multiculturalism, and multicultural education the assumption is such that it is tried to be depoliticized (Grant, 2016). In practice, this means that such education is considered to focus too much on celebrations of diversity. One approach is to integrate and meld different cultures into one reigning main culture.

Another approach is to promote a society acknowledging, respecting, and co- existing with different cultural groups and races (Yoon, 2012). Even if diversity within societies and mobility within and between societies may be growing, educators are expected to provide high-quality education for all the students (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004; Süssmuth, 2007). This has grown the interest in multicultural education around the world (Sleeter, 2014).

Holm and Zilliacus (2009) define multicultural education as an educational approach aiming to support cultural diversity and social justice. An important objective is to counter marginalization and discrimination both in educational practice as well as in society. Nieto (2006) argues that multicultural education and intercultural education are relatively often used as synonyms. Holm and Zilliacus (2009) continue that in Finland multicultural education is a more

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commonly used concept compared to the concept of intercultural education.

Intercultural and multicultural education can be considered to be based on ideals of social justice, education equity, and intention to reach students’ full potential as learners (Gorski & Covert, 2000). Sleeter (2014) divides multicultural education into four main types: appreciating the country’s cultural differences, appreciating international cultural differences, anti-discrimination and social justice, and anti-discrimination and global justice. As can be noted, the emphasis differs between the various types of multicultural education.

It can be considered that social justice education encourages students to actively focus on their education. From the educators’ perspective this creates democratic, empowering, and critical educational settings (Hackman, 2005). She emphasizes that to get potential out of social justice education systems of power and oppression have to be examined and the prolonged emphasis is put on student agency and social change.

Social justice questions power relations in education. However, such discourse that is focused on critical intercultural education focuses on cultural diversity and social justice while emphasizing also counter marginalization and cultural diversity in society and education (Zilliacus et al., 2017). This means that the power relations between the dominant majority and smaller groups like immigrants are identified as an important role in education and society. It is important to question whether social or cultural equality is considered as a basis for justice, and how the related education is implemented in practice (Mikander et al., 2018).

It may be concluded that in the Nordic countries, and Finland among them, the focus has been on equality and equity in education (Sahlberg, 2015). Even if the Nordic countries are considered to promote equality in education it can be considered that social justice in education is under threat while market liberalism promotes views on competitiveness, efficiency, and individualization (Lappalainen et al., 2013). We often consider that one main objective of school education is to promote active and participatory citizenship. While neo-liberalism may be promoting individualism, the more democratic approach is to promote participatory and justice-oriented citizenship (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004).

In some instances, intercultural education as a concept focuses too much on supporting and emphasizing diversity, but not that much social justice (Grant,

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2016; Osler, 2015). Critical consciousness is important from the perspective of social justice. This means awareness of societal systems rooted in sociocultural identity differences and its focus on social change. Among these sociocultural identity differences are among others race, gender, social class, disability, sexual identity, religion. (Allan & Iverson, 2004).

Being respectful and empathetic for other people is important. Respect between people is based on an assumption that human beings have their right to choose beliefs, opinions, practices, or affiliations (OECD, 2020). This is related to the human rights declaration of the United Nations. Respect does not equal the concept of tolerance. While tolerance could be considered as enduring difference, respect as a concept has more positive connotations. The basis is on the rights and freedoms of others and recognition of dignity (OECD, 2020).

According to Barrett (2016) respect should not be dependent on others' lifestyles, practices, opinions, or contents of beliefs. This perspective supports encouraging respect for people independent of their cultural background.

2.6 Creating a conceptual model for the research

A conceptual model supporting empirical testing is created to finalize the theoretical framework introduced in this chapter. Figure 1 describes the overall view of the model. It can be divided into three interlinked sections. These sections are important while the main research problem introduced in Chapter 2.7 is divided into three subproblems, which follow this division of the conceptual model into three sections.

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FIGURE 1. The conceptual model for the research

On the left side of the conceptual model illustrated in Figure 1 there is the relationship between curriculum and three theoretical constructs related to global competence: awareness about global issues, interest in learning about other cultures, and attitude towards immigrants. In addition to these it is proposed that curriculum has its effect on social justice and respect for people from other cultures. The basis for these proposals for existing relationships are as follows.

Curriculum is expected to promote learning on relevant issues supporting students’ development. Related research on the relationship between curriculum and awareness about global issues, interest of learning on cultures, and attitudes toward immigrants are introduced among others by Pope and Mueller (2005), Turner and Brown (2008), Baumgartner and Johnson-Bailey (2008), Witte (2010), Osteen et al. (2013), Rogers and O'Bryon (2014), and Hjerm et al. (2018).

The second section, in the middle, of the conceptual model focuses on the relationship between three theoretical constructs related to global competence:

awareness about global issues, interest in learning about other cultures, and attitude towards immigrants. The relationship between awareness and interest of learning has been researched among others by Eriksen (1960), Chen et al.

(2007), and Arguedas et al. (2016). The relationship between awareness of global issues and attitudes towards immigrants have been researched among others by

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Szabo and Anderson (2009), Iwai (2013), and Awang-Shuib et al. (2017). The relationship between interest of learning about cultures and attitudes towards immigrants has been covered by Hart (2012) and Figueira and Duarte (2011).

The third section on the right side of the conceptual model focuses on the relationship between theoretical constructs of global competence to social justice and respect for people from other countries. The relationship between awareness and social justice and thus respect for people from other cultures has been researched by Stoner (1997), Lawrence and Tatum (2004), Washington (2007), and Comstock et al. (2008). The relationship between interest in learning (motivation) and social justice has been covered among others by Walker (2006) and Williamson et al. (2007). The relationship between attitudes towards immigrants and social justice has been researched among others by Garza (2004) and Walby (2012).

2.7 Research problem and hypotheses

The Global competence-framework introduced by OECD’s PISA 2018 large scale-assessment and concepts related to it and their relationship with each other are the focus of this thesis.

The research problem for this thesis is as follows:

Can students’ respect for people from other cultures be explained by curriculum and different concepts related to global competence introduced by OECD’s global competence framework?

The main research problem was divided into three subproblems with a logic introduced in chapter 2.6 Creating a conceptual model for the research.

Subproblem 1:

Does curriculum affect students’ awareness of global issues, interest of learning from other cultures and attitudes towards immigrants positively?

In order to find a solution to the first subproblem the following four hypotheses were set:

H1a: Curriculum covering global competence predicts students’ awareness about global issues

H1b: Curriculum covering global competence predicts students’ interest in learning about other cultures

Global Competence Supporting Respect for People from other Cultures

Mikko Mäntyneva