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ANNEMARIE OOMEN PETER PLANT

Early School Leaving and Lifelong Guidance

ELGPN Concept Note No. 6

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Early School Leaving and Lifelong Guidance

ELGPN Concept Note No. 6

Annemarie Oomen & Peter Plant

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© The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network (ELGPN)

Co-ordinator 2013-14:

University of Jyväskylä, Finland

Finnish Institute for Educational Research (FIER) http://elgpn.eu

elgpn@jyu.fi

Editor: Outi Ruusuvirta / Finnish Institute for Educational Research (FIER)

Cover and graphic design: Martti Minkkinen / Finnish Institute for Educational Research (FIER) Layout: Taittopalvelu Yliveto Oy

ISBN 978-951-39-6007-0 (printed version) ISBN 978-951-39-6008-7 (pdf)

Printed by Kirjapaino Kari Jyväskylä 2014

This is an independent concept paper commissioned by the European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network (ELGPN), a Member-State-network in receipt of EU financial support under the Lifelong Learning Programme. The paper draws from discussions within the Network. But the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessar- ily reflect the official position of the ELGPN or its member countries, or of the European Commission or any person acting on behalf of the Commission.

The paper has been written by Ms Annemarie Oomen (the Netherlands) and Professor Peter Plant (Denmark)

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Table of Contents

Abbreviations ... 4

Country codes ... 4

Executive Summary ... 5

1 Policy context ... 7

2 Brief summary of the current state of play: ESL in EU Member States ... 8

3 Definition of Early School Leaving – different approaches ... 8

4 ESL related factors ... 11

5 ESL, policy-making, prevention, and career education ... 13

6 Comprehensive approaches ... 15

7 The role of Lifelong Guidance in ESL Initiatives: Implications and recommendations ... 18

References ... 21

Annex: ESL good practices reported by ELGPN members and partners. ... 24

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Abbreviations

CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training CMS Career Management Skills

CVET Continuous Vocational Education and Training ELET Early Leavers from Education and Training

ESL Early School Leaving, also used to refer to early school leavers in this paper

EU European Union

ISCED International Standard Classification of Education NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PES Public Employment Services

SEN Special Educational Needs

Country codes

EU-28 European Union AT Austria

BE Belgium

BEnl Belgium – Flemish Community BG Bulgaria

CH Switzerland CY Cyprus

CZ Czech Republic

DK Denmark

DE Germany EE Estonia

EL Greece

ES Spain

HU Hungary

FI Finland

FR France HR Croatia IE Ireland

IS Iceland

IT Italy

LT Lithuania

LU Luxembourg

LV Latvia

MT Malta

NL The Netherlands NO Norway

PL Poland

PT Portugal

RO Romania

SE Sweden

SI Slovenia SK Slovakia

TR Turkey

UK The United Kingdom

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Why? Early school leaving (ESL) is costly for the individual, for society and for the economy. Not just in economic terms, but also in terms of low self- esteem, and the risk of social exclusion. More, and, in particular, better education can lead to positive outcomes, in relation to employment, level of sala- ries, better health, less crime, higher social cohesion, lower public and social costs, and higher productiv- ity. This is why ESL is a policy focal point. In these terms, lifelong guidance has a key role to play in terms of both prevention, intervention, and of com- pensation strategies.

What? ESL is not a fixed concept. In some contexts it is used interchangeably with alternative terms:

‘ELET (Early Leavers from Education and Training)’,

‘interrupted learners’, ‘school dropouts’, ‘NEET’ (Not in Education, Employment or Training). All these phenomena are defined differently. The statistics mirror these different approaches:

• Eurostat deals with the percentage of 18–24 year olds who have attained lower secondary education or less (ISCED 0, 1, 2 or 3c short), and who did not take part in education or

Executive Summary

training during the four weeks preceding the survey

• The OECD looks at the percentage of adults who have attained upper secondary education (ISCED 3, excluding 3c short)

• On a national level, governments may apply dissimilar yardsticks.

In short, ESL is more than dropping out of school, or, in some cases, being pushed out of school at an early stage. ESL represents a concern about the personal, institutional, and social obstacles to unfolding the ideal of lifelong learning in practice. This is where lifelong guidance may help to remove some of the stumbling blocks, both on an individual and an institutional level.

How? A multitude of approaches to combating

ESL have been adopted across Europe. Each country

has its own strategy. What they have in common is

the effort to motivate students to stay on in educa-

tion, to be motivated to continue their education,

and to find meaning in learning. Schools and other

educational/training institutions, on the other hand,

struggle to develop educational inclusion in making

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Executive Summary

space for students with complex learning, social, and economic challenges. Lifelong learning represents the principle that it is never too late: there is room for, and indeed a need for, recurrent education and training, for second chance education, for flexible learning paths, and thus for lifelong guidance. As illustrated in the Annex at the end of this Con- cept Note, guidance plays a pivotal role in creating smooth transitions, and a more inclusive learning

environment, and in establishing outreach services

and second or third educational opportunities. ESL

should never be the final stage in terms of learning,

whether this is formal, non-formal, or informal. In

this report, these approaches are represented through

a number of examples of such strategies and practices,

with a view to the role of lifelong guidance in rela-

tion to combating ESL, and with a particular focus on

the advocacy and feedback roles of guidance.

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Early school leaving (ESL) is costly for the indi- vidual, for society and for the economy. Not just in economic terms, but also in terms of low self- esteem, and the risk of social exclusion. More, and, in particular, better education can lead to positive outcomes, in relation to employment, level of sala- ries, better health, less crime, higher social cohesion, lower public and social costs, and higher productiv- ity. This is why ESL is a policy focal point. In these terms, lifelong guidance has a key role to play in terms of both prevention, intervention, and of com- pensation strategies.

The European Commission has addressed ESL on several occasions. These are some examples:

• In June 2010, the EU education ministers agreed on a framework for coherent, comprehensive, and evidence-based policies to tackle early school leaving. This was followed up in June 2011, when the Education Council adopted a recommendation on policies to reduce ESL

1

.

• A Thematic Working Group on ESL, bringing together policy makers and practitioners from nearly all EU countries, as well as NO, IS, and TR, has looked at good practice examples in Europe and exchanged experiences in reduc- ing early school leaving. A report produced in November 2013 (EC, 2013a)

2

states that poli- cies to tackle ESL need to address all levels of education.

• A more recent report from Eurydice (2014) gives a comprehensive overview of the state of affairs across Europe in addressing strategies, policies and measures to combat ESL. One of the sec- tions of this report is devoted to education and to career guidance; this measure receives special attention in this report as guidance is identified by a large majority of European countries as beneficial for tackling early leaving from educa- tion and training. The report discusses the role of guidance in prevention, intervention and compensation actions related to ESL.

1 http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2011:191:

0001:0006:en:PDF

1. Policy context

2 http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=9690&langId=en

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2. Brief summary of the current state of play:

• Current EU policies related to ESL clink the issue of ESL with employment, health, eco- nomic and other issues.

• Combating high drop-out rates across Europe is among the key targets

3

of Europe 2020 Strat- egy. The Strategy has some major political and social-economic rationales:

○ better skills-sets for European citizens, providing a more inclusive (e.g. in migrant areas, Roma, rural, or slum urban areas) and a “smarter” society;

○ linking with future skills needs (based on the CEDEFOP prognosis, many new vacancies will be available for ISCED 3–4 level, while ISCED 1–2 needs will decline

4

;

○ lower drop-out rates and better skills might contribute to better health and longer working-life

5

.

• The modernisation of the Public Employment Services (PES), in line with the PES 2020 Strat- egy Output paper (EC, 2013c) encourages their member organisations role in partnerships aimed at reaching out and activating young unemployed, NEETS and in delivering the Youth Guarantee.

2. Brief summary of the current state of play:

ESL in EU Member States

One of the Europe 2020 targets is reducing ESL to less than 10%. Since 2011 each EU Member State has set their national ESL target, and annually submits a National Reform Programme to the European Com-

mission to show progress and how this has been accomplished. In 2013

6

, according to Eurostat, the EU28 average ESL or ELET rate was 12 %, a decrease compared to 13.9% in 2010 and 14.7% in 2008.

However, the rates in that year varied considerably across the EU, from below 5% (HR and SI) to above 17% (ES, IT, MT, PT and RO).

• Some Member States have ESL rates above 10%

with little progress or stagnation in recent years:

BE, ES, HU, IT, RO and TR.

• Other Member States with ESL rates above 10%

have shown a significant progress since 2009:

BG, EL, IS, MT, NO, PT and UK.

• Member States with ESL rates below 10% that have faced an increase or stagnation recently:

CZ, PO, SE and SK.

• More than half of the EU countries have ESL rates below 10% and have made further prog- ress in recent years: AT, CH, CY, DE, DK, EE, IE, FR, HR, LV, LT, LU,NL, SI and FI.

3. Definition of Early School Leaving – different

approaches

What is Early School Leaving (ESL)?

One of the challenges in dealing with ESL on a European level is that there is no common under- standing across Europe concerning the definition of ESL. Whereas the problems associated with ESL are widely recognised, there is no common approach to dealing with ESL.

Different definitions

ESL is not a fixed concept. In some contexts it is used interchangeably with alternative terms:

3 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/targets/

index_en.htm

4 http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/about-cedefop/projects/forecast- ing-skill-demand-and-supply/skills-forecasts.aspx

5 http://skills.oecd.org/

6 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&lan guage=en&pcode=tsdsc410&plugin=1

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3. Definition of Early School Leaving – different approaches

‘ELET (Early Leavers from Education and Train- ing)’, ‘interrupted learners’, ‘school dropouts’, NEET (Not in Education, Employment or Train- ing). All these phenomena are defined slightly differently.

• Eurostat looks at the percentage of 18–24 year olds who have attained lower secondary educa- tion or less (ISCED 0, 1, 2 or 3c short) and who did not take part in education or training during the four weeks preceding the survey (EC, 2013b).

• The OECD looks at the percentage of adults who have attained upper secondary education (ISCED 3, excluding 3c short) (OECD, 2013).

• And on a national level, governments may apply different yardsticks. NL, for example, applies the term ESL to the percentage of students who left education before they attained qualifica- tions on ISCED level 3 (Onderwijsraad, 2013)

What the ESL definitions have in common is that they focus on the attainment of a certain level of schooling and learning of the popu- lation. This reflects the overall view that the potential of youth should be utilised and devel- oped through learning. In addition, ample evi- dence shows that the ESL are more at risk of unemployment and social exclusion, resulting in financial and non-financial costs to them- selves and, in the longer run, to the society (EC, 2013b).

School dropouts/ interrupted learners

Recently the European Commission distin- guished the ESL/ELET from ‘school dropouts’ or

‘interrupted learners’. As the latter term suggest, these notations refer to those who discontinue an ongoing-course during a school term (EC, 2013a).

However, the published ESL/ELET numbers relate to the recent ESL, i.e. at the point of school leaving. This tends to disregard the fact that some ESL find their way back into edu-

cation, and actually reach the projected level of schooling and training. This is often done through second chance education. In NL, for example, 33% of the ESL returned to formal education within three years, often with success (Van Wijk et al., 2011). In Australia 82% of the ESL returned within five years; the chances of re- engagement peaked three months after leaving school and fell sharply thereafter. Being an ESL for 12 to 18 months lowered the chances of re- engagement, as was the case for those who left because they either had a problem with school, or were not doing well at school (Polidano, Tabasso and Tseng in: Sweet, 2012).

• NEET

There is some overlap between ESL and NEET (Not in Employment, Education, or Training), as the NEET category is defined by Eurostat:

‘NEET encompasses all unemployed and inac- tive young persons (15–24 year olds) who are not employed and have not received any educa- tion or training in the four weeks preceding the survey’.

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The NEET is a heterogeneous group with a wide variety of backgrounds: from dis- advantaged, disengaged youth to highly edu- cated young people. The reasons for the NEET status range from becoming NEET as a school dropout, losing a job, or deciding to be NEET.

The NEET group includes young people who have no or little control over their situation:

for instance due to being unemployed, ill, dis- abled, or a young carer. Some sub-groups of NEETs, however, do have control over their situation: for instance youngsters who are not seeking work, education or training, and who are not constrained from doing so by other obligations or incapacities. The NEET cat- egory also includes those youngsters who are involved in activities such as unpaid voluntary

7 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/

Glossary:NEET.

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3. Definition of Early School Leaving – different approaches

work, art projects, and travelling during a ‘gap year’ (Eurofound, 2012).

According to Eurostat, in 2013

8

the EU28 aver- age NEET rate was 13 %, a slight decrease from 2012 but still high compared to the 12.7% in 2010. The rates

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vary considerably across the EU, with rates from below 5.2% (LU, NL) to above 18% (BG, CY, EL, ES, HR, IT, and TR). There are also notable variations across regions within countries.

The composition of the NEET population in the Member States is diverse. Besides the NEET rate, the share of men and women, the level of edu- cation and skills, previous experience of work, and the number of discouraged workers differs considerably. Member States can be clustered by the characteristics of their NEET population as shown in the Figure 1 below.

8 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&lan guage=en&pcode=tipslm90&plugin=0

Figure 1: European countries clustered according to NEET rates and characteristics of their NEET population

Source: Eurofound, 2012.

9 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/

Glossary:NEET

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4. ESL related factors

4. ESL related factors

ESL is a multi-faceted and complex issue. It is a result of personal, social, economic, commu- nity, education and/or family-related reasons: a gradual process that cumulates over time (EC, 2013b). In general, a student will not decide to end a school career from one day to another.

It is often preceded by a period of doubt and truancy after lengthy periods of difficulties and with early warning signs of dropping out: poor grades in core subjects; low attendance; grade retention, and disengagement in the classroom, including behavioural problems (Kennelly and Monrad, 2007). In this situation, an incident may be the straw that breaks the camel’s back with the effect that the student leaves school.

Among the ESL, there can be found a high number of male students with migrant back- ground and lower socio-economic status. Cul- tural barriers, such as language, and deprivation and poverty contribute to their decision to leave school early. Although the effect of the parental background on ESL varies across the Member States, still many ESL have lower-educated par- ents (Lavrijsen and Nicaise, 2013). Parental interest in schooling is a crucial predictor of the individual dropout decision as is motiva- tion. For staying motivated, the quality of the peer group and teachers with whom the student engages are essential (DeWitte et al., 2010).

In the literature, the roles of the economy, poli- tics, and society in general are not considered, and the organisation of the school systems and its effects on ESL are still underexplored (De Witte et al., 2013a). The labour market can act as a ‘pull’ and ‘push’ factor in the ESL process.

High unemployment may encourage young- sters to continue their studies or it may discour- age them to finish school. The latter is the case if youngsters observe that adults in qualified and unqualified jobs face the same unemploy-

ment rate. Findings from a comparative EU study show that a growing economy in terms of the GDP encourages students to stay on at school (De Witte et al., 2013b).

Structural characteristics of the education system, such as grade retention, inflexible edu- cation pathways, and transition points may con- tribute to high ESL rates, as do school features such as an unsafe school climate, disengaging education, or lack of student participation (EC, 2013b). On average, the Member States have been the most successful in tackling ESL among 18- and 19-year-olds, compared to ESL amongst 23- and 24-year-olds (a decrease respectively of 17.6% and 16.1% for the 18/19 year olds versus 6.1% and 8.4% for the 23- and 24-year olds). These results suggest that schools manage to keep students in education longer, whether this relates to ESL policies or to the on-going economic crisis (EC, 2013b) in which school retention may be perceived as an alternative to unemployment.

Early tracking in the educational system appears not to have a significant impact on ESL. De Witte et al. (2013b) argue that schools select- ing students based on cognitive ability lead to school competition, quality in teaching and learning and prevent school fatigue and drop- out. The downside, however, is that the earlier students drop out of the perceived ‘rat race’, the less they participate in further learning. Another finding is that a well-developed vocational track may reduce ESL due to the direct utility of a sec- ondary educational degree for students. Finally, the longer the duration of compulsory educa- tion, the lower the risk of school drop-out (De Witte et al., 2013b).

Drop out vs. Push Out

In recent years there has been a growing rec-

ognition that cross-sectoral policies and pro-

grammes can and should play a growing role

in efforts to prevent young people from leaving

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4. ESL related factors

education early. This means that ESL is under- stood as a problem of the educational system, society and the school, rather than as a prob- lem caused only by the young person and his/

her family, background or peers (Nevala and Hawley, 2011).

However, the focus is still, both in policy terms and on a practical level, on on emphasising the individual deficits and difficulties. In most cases, the individual, rather than the educa- tional institution, is seen as the problem. This is reflected in the labelling of people who do not take part in formal education or leave edu- cational institutions. For ESL and NEET one common label is ‘educational drop outs’. What these individuals have in common is that they do not fit easily into mainstream education. Or, rather, that mainstream education does not fit their needs. This highlights the point that these individuals may in fact be push-outs, rather than drop outs. Rather than having ‘dropped out’, they may often have been ‘facilitated out’, in other words: driven out of the common edu- cation system by teachers’ and other personnel’s low aspirations and incitements to leave (cf.

Vizcain, 2005, in: De Witte, 2013a).

How is the problem viewed? That is the ques- tion. Is it viewed as an individual problem, or as an institutional/societal problem? ‘What is the problem represented to be?’ asks Bacchi (2009) in her discourse analysis approach. This is important, as the framing and conceptualiz- ing of the problem at hand also determines the strategies and interventions to solve the prob- lem. In this case, the problem is represented as an individual lack of self-esteem, stamina, personal clout, social capital, or personal drive and motivation. Conversely, this list of deficits may be viewed as symptoms of institutional dif- ficulties or deficits, or of societal difficulties or deficits. This is an alternative representation of the problem, and it calls for alternative answers.

‘Perhaps the focus should not so much be on

dropping out as a problem of perceived or actual failures of pupils, schools and the costs associated to it, but on dropout as an indication and origin of fundamental inequities’(Smeyers and Depaepe, 2006). This perspective shifts the focus towards school attendance and comple- tion as a right of citizens that is to be safe- guarded in any democracy and calls for a more nuanced view on the many dropout determi- nants (cf. Dorn, 1996, in: De Witte, 2013a).

Interventions are often remedial, as they aim at solving problems which are already prevalent and urgent, whereas an emphasis on more pre- ventive measures such as innovative learning methods are rarer as they are often more dif- ficult to measure or legitimise. Moreover, men- tors, coaches, teachers, and guidance workers acting in a preventive mode may be seen as playing the role of the Trojan Horse in the very institutions of which they are an integral part (Plant, 2005). In these terms, two important guidance roles should be highlighted: advocacy (speaking on behalf of the student/client), and feedback (feeding guidance experiences and evidence back to the very systems/institutions which produced ESL in order to change proce- dures, approaches, and policies).

Schooling and learning: informal/non-for- mal/formal learning

The ESL indicator is in many cases defined as the percentage of the population aged 18–24 with a certain level of education and not in further/higher education or training. This raises a number of important issues in relation to the concept of lifelong learning and in relation to the different types of learning (formal, non-for- mal, informal). Lifelong learning represents the idea and the ideal that it is never too late: there is room for, and a need for, recurrent education and training, for second chance education, for flexible learning paths and other such measures.

In practical and policy terms, early leavers from

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5. ESL, policy-making, prevention, and career education

education and trainingare labelled as early school leavers if they leave school after second- ary education. They may have completed their compulsory education or schooling, but they are still considered to be early leavers; too early for their own good, and for the good of society. This builds on the assumption that schools, as insti- tutions, are important places for learning. This may indeed be the case, but more often than not this is not the case for early school leavers. This may be why they leave school. In addition, the focus on schooling puts the emphasis on the formal part of learning: following a fixed curricu- lum, sitting for exams, getting a certificate. This particular focus tends to disregard other impor- tant forms of learning, i.e. non-formal and infor- mal learning. The two latter forms of learning may be of utmost importance for early school leavers in terms of learning. In some Member States, this is recognised in the educational leg- islation. In DK, for instance, schooling is not obligatory, whereas education is. In practical terms, this means that hybrid forms of learning exist within mainstream education, blending for instance practical training in a workplace three days a week with school work two days a week.

This also counts as education.

5. ESL, policy-making, prevention, and career

education

Important aspects for policy-makers:

• The way ESL is defined and tackled on a national level in the Member States is linked to the way how the problem is perceived, and accordingly, the data collected and policies developed.

• In terms of ESL policy development, Member States and their regions face different chal-

lenges depending on their definition of ESL, their education and training systems, economic situation and structure of local labour markets.

• Linking ESL with NEET-approaches, it is widely agreed that unemployment after leaving educa- tion and early in a young person’s working life can have long-term or ‘scarring’ effects (Nord- ström-Skans, 2004).

• It is essential to know and understand why some youngsters might end up as NEET/ESL and what social, economic, personal and edu- cational factors may increase the risk of this.

Many of the factors are cumulative.

• Particularly youngsters with a low level of edu- cational attainment, a disability, an immigrant background or those who live in a remote area are more likely to become NEET/ESL as do youngsters whose parents are divorced, unem- ployed and/or have a low income (Eurofound, 2012). Furthermore, it is important to highlight that as a result of the economic crisis, a large share of young adults with tertiary education are now also at risk of ending up with a NEET status.

• Raising educational participation and reduc- ing unemployment seem to have a substantial effect on the level of youth unemployment and inactivity. However, links between unemploy- ment and inactivity are not straightforward as far as to educational participation is concerned.

This suggests that unemployment and inactiv- ity among young people should not be treated identically in policy terms (Sweet, 2012).

• Within the ESL/ELET indicators outlined above,

two subgroups can be distinguished which

behave differently, depending on the circum-

stances. Some youngsters leave during or after

initial/formal education, whereas others drop

out but re-enter non-formal education or train-

ing. The latter group is relatively small. But pol-

icy-makers need to be aware of the importance

of this latter group of ‘second chance learn-

ers’ and remove barriers for accessing lifelong

learning (De Witte et al. 2013b).

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5. ESL, policy-making, prevention, and career education

• Many reviews stress the heterogeneity of the NEET group regarding labour and/or learning readiness and emphasise the importance of policies that adopt a range of innovative ini- tiatives able to reach these youngsters and of addressing diverse needs.

• For example, a classification of young people who are NEET in a UK cohort study (Spielhofer et al., 2009) suggests three groups:

○ More than two-fifths of youngsters (41%

of the total) are open to learning.

○ A similar proportion (38% of the total) faces many personal and structural barri- ers, coming from deprived backgrounds, with no recent employment history, and low educational attainment. They are likely to remain NEET in the medium- term.

○ A fifth of young people are classified as

‘undecided NEET’ – with negative school experiences/attitudes and lacking the resilience and skills to take up available, but for them dissatisfying opportunities.

Although schools play an important role in address- ing ESL, they cannot and should not work in isola- tion. National ESL policies should be cross-sectoral by nature, involving stakeholders from policy areas such as youth, social/welfare, employment, health, governance and co-operation, data collection and monitoring, while the focus of the ESL policies should be on prevention, intervention and compen- sation.

• Prevention seeks to avoid the conditions from arising where processes leading to ESL can start and requires initiatives at system level.

• Intervention addresses emerging difficulties at an early stage and seeks to prevent them from leading to ESL. Intervention takes place at indi- vidual school level and includes student-cen- tred measures.

• Compensation measures offer opportunities for

education and training for those who have interrupted their education: second chance opportunities, re-entering education and train- ing, and comprehensive support.

These three approaches are mirrored in a compre- hensive Eurydice Report (European Commission/

EACEA/Eurydice, 2014) on ESL. Interestingly, this echoes earlier findings from the Pan-European actions research programme Eurocounsel, which also highlighted these three approaches to guidance:

preventing, solving, and coping (Watt, 1998).

In terms of preventive aspects,, career education in its many forms may play an important role in terms of preventing ESL. Career education may include a number of varied activities, many of which point to the importance of broadening the scope of educa- tional and vocational career decisions in a lifelong perspective, including for example, work experience programmes, job shadowing, career games, or taster courses in other types of education. All such struc- tured activities aim at encouraging students to see their career in terms of lifelong development, and to look beyond their immediate limitations with a view to create a higher level of meaningfulness in their current and future educational paths. They are encouraged to view their career work in terms of Career Management Skills (CMS) (ELGPN, 2012).

Career education may be taught as a compulsory topic, it may be a separate subject, or it may be embedded in the curriculum as a cross-curricular subject, and this may be carried out by specialists or non-specialists.

A comprehensive Career Education programme

throughout school is the backbone of preventive

approaches, whoever delivers the programme as part

of the curriculum. A key factor in schools is the

teaching-staff (Feerick, forthcoming). Teachers play

an important role in the learning outcomes and

in the measures in tackling ESL, whether related

to the school climate, school engagement, sup-

portive and individualised learning environments,

early warning systems, or co-operation with parents

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6. Comprehensive approaches

and other stakeholders (EC, 2013b). In order to make the school more attractive to students, several recommendations are made to Member States to strengthen the teaching profession, which include a structured induction programme with professional, social, and personal support, along with continu- ing professional development for both teachers and school leaders. High standards are needed for teacher educators both in academic as in teaching experience perspective (EC, 2013b).

6. Comprehensive approaches

In short, the current EU approach requires a shift from implementing separate ESL measures to intro- ducing comprehensive policies that focus on the causes of ESL. Twelve key policy messages identify the critical conditions for successful policies against ESL, one of which (#11) is concerned with guid- ance and counselling: ‘Strengthen guidance to ensure young people are aware of the different study options and employment prospects available to them. Ensure counselling systems provide young people with both emotional and practical support’ (EC 2013a, p. 5).

In this list, guidance is mentioned as one com- ponent of twelve important policy areas, but the guidance and counselling concepts and activities are not explored beyond creating awareness of options and providing support. In NL, for example, ESL in the first year of CVET is caused to a large extent by what is labelled ‘the wrong study choice’ (Allen and Meng, 2010).

The situation calls for a stronger emphasis on the contribution which guidance may bring as a measure to combat ESL. Here, it is worth emphasising that guidance is more than awareness-raising, supportive or informational activity or a face-to-face interview.

Ford (2002) identified Informing, Advising, Counsel- ling, Assessing, Enabling, Advocating, Networking, Feeding back, Managing, Innovating/systems change,

Signposting, Mentoring, Sampling, Following up as forms of guidance. Of these, advocating and feeding back deserve special attention, as these two guidance activities may play a crucial role in re-shaping train- ing and education to be more inclusive, and thus in preventing ESL.

Guidance has wide and deep roles to play in both supporting individuals and groups in terms of ESL, including firmer links to alternative learning arenas, and in changing the very system which produces ESL, e.g. in schools and VET. Few Member States, however, have developed and implemented a comprehensive strategy to tackle the problem. AT6, BEnl, ES31, and NL74

10

have a comprehensive approach for reduc- ing ESL rates, while such approaches are currently being developed in BG, HU and MT.. Some Member States (DE, IE and UK) have a set of measures, action plans and policy frameworks that come very close to a comprehensive approach. In CH, NO and PT the comprehensive strategy takes the form of projects.

Actions and projects imply that they exist only for a certain period of time. Thus, the overview of good practice in tackling ESL presented below and in the Annex is a snapshot of a constantly changing scene.

It is to such examples of prevention, intervention and compensation that we now turn in some detail.

Preventing ESL

In preventing ESL, the policies are mainly concerned with providing career education and guidance and improving teaching and learning in general (EC 2013b).

Many Member States provide Career Education and Guidance (CEG) in the educational system in which the development or learning of Career Man- agement Skills plays an important role. In Finland CEG is a subject in curricula both in comprehensive and upper secondary level education. Recently some Member States have introduced CEG recently as a

10 The numbers refer to the good practices listed in the Annex.

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6. Comprehensive approaches

subject (DK24, MT71, MT73), as a specific targeted program for social inclusion (PT89) or as an indi- vidual track (FR38). The quality of CEG in education organisations can be improved for instance by pro- viding general training to the practitioners (CZ13;

NL70) or specific training on labour market informa- tion (SE93; SE94). This improvement of CEG also can be achieved by providing tools (LV69; FR39) or support to draft a comprehensive CEG program (NL77) or better and closer interventions (PT88). In NO(81), PES staff is located at schools for early inter- vention and to improve labour market knowledge.

A few Member States have (re-)organised their guidance services outside the educational system to meet current needs of ESL and lifelong guidance (CZ13; FI36; HR42; LU52). National guidance ser- vices have developed e-portals or websites to support the practitioners and the students with up-to-date information available 24/7 (CZ13; EL29; EL30; LV62;

MT70).

Recently, many Member States have made the transfer from general education to VET easier, either by reforms of laws (DK22; EE25; ES31; FR37; LU51) or by other measures (DE16; DE18; DE19; NL74).

Flexibility in educational systems to prevent ESL is further enhanced by special student and teacher materials and promoting entrepreneurship (LT49;

FR38), taking students to the labs in VET for a period of time (IT47) or alternative pathways where aca- demic and work-based learning are blended (AT4;

DE19; DK21; ES31; MT72; SE94; UK99), some of which are specifically targeted at SEN-students (spe- cial educational needs) (AT7; EE27; FI33; SE94).

FI(33) and SE(94) offer a pathway where students can explore different VET options before selecting a course, while LV(64) offers taster courses as part of school activities after school hours. In DE(15), pupils in grade 7 or 8 participate in an analysis of their potential, interests and aspirations, and are provided with vocational information and guidance and coaching during the transition.

To identify potential early school leavers as early as possible, Member States employ diverse approaches.

AT(6) and TR(97) have developed instruments to monitor absenteeism, while IT(48) and NL(74) use instruments to monitor the educational path of students. To identify students at risk of ESL, for instance due to learning difficulties, ES(31), LU(58) and IS(45) have developed instruments which prac- titioners can use. In EE(26) a special needs’ coordina- tor supports teachers in identifying SEN, proposing individual educational support in- or outside school in co-operation with professionals from different sectors. Similar tasks are executed by expert-teams in HR(41), cross-sectoral teams in LU(58) or care-teams in NL(75). In NO(79; 81) PES staff at schools can co- ordinate multidisciplinary support.

In the classroom, teachers may be assisted by peda- gogical assistants (CZ14; LV63) that help the stu- dents at risk individually. To prevent ESL, LU(53) provides language support to foreign born students and young newly arrived adults.

In CH(8), intensified contact between schools and (migrant) parents is offered to inform parents about the educational system. FR(39) provides school teams with a toolkit to facilitate the dialogue with parents and increase their participation in their chil- dren’s choice making process. FR(40) is also experi- menting with giving parents and students a final say in their options after college.

Intervention

In the area of intervention, the policies and measures used by Member States to provide guidance services especially for students at risk of ESL at transition points are diverse.

Students with learning and behavioural problems in LU(54) and NL(75) can leave the regular class for a temporary provision where they get support to con- tinue their program and decide on their future path.

At least 13 year old students in PT(86) with at least

two years retention can stay in their school, where

their program is combined with professional practice

in three occupations.

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6. Comprehensive approaches

In an IT(46) region, an extensive project supports students and teachers with guidance in several areas and involves the extended family in these activities.

‘Last call’ is an intervention where students leaving compulsory education can go to the career guid- ance centres to get advice for one afternoon after the summer break (CH11). In the UK(99) people of all ages can use the career support online and the telephone service provided by the National Careers Service.

Municipalities in FI(34) can recruit youth workers that help to support and refer students who have not completed upper secondary education or are at risk of becoming NEET to guidance services. Students who have not completed upper secondary educa- tion are tracked and provided with an individual plan within a specific period of time in DK(23) and SE(91) as part of outreach services. An individual career plan for students at risk of ESL is also the aim for the volunteer role model mentor program in NL(76), and ‘Local Action’ and School Drop-in in LU(55; 56).

Individual coaching over a relatively long period with the possibility to return several times is avail- able for young people at the risk of ESL and SEN-stu- dents in AT(3). CH(9) provide case management for at-risk early school leavers entering VET and/or the labour market, while DE(20) provides this service especially for ESL in deprived areas. Activating early school leavers and NEET in terms of physical, social, occupational and economical aspects, and improv- ing their career management skills to enter the labour market, are used in NL(78) and PL(83).

Compensation

Compensation approaches focus on second chance education and support for re-entering education and training and/or the labour market, which are used by most Member States. Guidance is an important feature in these initiatives that are offered at different educational levels.

In EE(28), for over 17 year-olds, in PT(85) for under 15 year-olds and in HU(43) for 14-16 year- olds, second chance education is available to com- plete primary education and enter VET. In EE 21 year olds and in PT over 18 year olds get their previous experiences recognised when entering for instance . VET (EE28; PT85). SE(95) provides second chance to 20-24 year olds to complete basic qualifications and social skills, as do AT(5), while LU(60) offers this to 16-30 year olds to re-enter an education that fits the skills of the person. FI(35) mixes work-based learning with life skills. IS(44) provides early school leavers who want to go back to school with guidance and educational support.

AT (1; 2) offers 15-19 year olds an opportunity to catch up with missing parts of their compulsory edu- cation with coaching when entering an apprentice- ship afterwards. Similarly, PT(84) and SE(90) offer young people a three months course to return to or start at upper secondary level; LU(59) offers youth under the age of 18 a one-year course of key compe- tences to access VET or the labour market.

SI(96) provides 15–25 year old NEETs project learning with a flexible and supportive learning envi- ronment and a mentor to define their path in profes- sional career and life. Guidance motivation to return to education or employment is offered to 16–25 year old NEETs in LT(50). NO(79; 80) combines career guidance, work practice and school curricula of upper secondary education for the young hard-to- reach unemployed.

Some Member States combine the compensation approach with the Youth Guarantee Initiative, as in LV(67) and FI(34). LU(61) offers initial practical experience. Preparatory apprenticeships are offered by CY(12). ES(32) promotes entrepreneurship.

A few reflections arising from the above:

• A partnership approach is relatively recent in a

number of Member States in terms of their ESL

and lifelong guidance strategy. DE (16; 17 and

18) and UK(99) have strengthened cooopera-

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7. The role of Lifelong Guidance in ESL Initiatives: Implications and recommendations

tion with industries and employers, while other Member States (AT6; HR41; NL74, NO79; 82) have strengthened co-operation with profes- sionals in the medical, psychological, social and/or justice sectors.

• Tackling ESL seems to move from a nation- wide approach, including national support for local initiatives in the Nordic countries (DK23;

FI34; NO79; 80; 81 and SE95) to more initia- tives at regional and local level (CH11; IS44;

IT46; 43; LU57; NL77).

• The emphasis in tackling ESL is on preventive and intervention initiatives more than on com- pensation. The need for policies to remove the barriers to lifelong learning, especially for early school leavers who lack compulsory education but want to return to education has not yet been recognised.

• The nature of the clients in ESL initiatives has changed over the last few years. Low achievers, SEN, minorities, and the deprived still seem the main target group: there are few indications that the heterogeneity of ESL and of NEETs is taken into account in policies.

• Several countries have plans to better under- stand the effects and effectiveness of the mea- sures they employ.

• Although parents are considered crucial in the ESL battle, they are not seen as initiators in most projects or policies.

7. The role of Lifelong Guidance in ESL Initiatives:

Implications and recommendations

Guidance is most effective when it is conceived as a lifelong system in learning and work (Hooley 2014).

Research suggests that lifelong guidance can have

an impact on retention, achievement, transitions, career and life success, and thus needs to be con- sidered and included in the initiatives to tackle ESL.

Hooley, Marriott and Sampson (2011) surveyed the existing evidence.

• ESL students often cite the lack of work and life relevance of their schooling as a factor in their decision process, which suggests that lifelong guidance is important in the school engagement of youngsters and staying in the school system.

• Research suggests that students who have a career plan are more likely to stay in the school system.

• Lifelong guidance, if combined with core aca- demic learning, can reduce grade retention.

This is particularly the case when lifelong guid- ance is introduced with young students and is implemented in a systematic way.

• Computer-assisted guidance as component of lifelong guidance programs can exert an influence on retention rates and contribute to enhanced academic outcomes.

• A number of studies demonstrate that life- long guidance can enhance students’ academic achievement.

• Lifelong guidance can help to smoothe the often critical school/school or school/work transition by providing youngsters with the necessary knowledge and skills, and by helping to support and broker their transition. There is evidence to suggest that providing support for transition can enhance youngsters’ satisfaction in relation to their choice.

• Research shows that lifelong guidance which includes work experience and work-related learning is effective in helping youngsters to successfully enter the labour market.

• There is evidence to suggest that lifelong guid- ance can increase the likelihood of enrolment in post-initial education and support young- sters in making that transition.

• Lifelong guidance that is effective in support-

ing school/school transition tends to combine

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7. The role of Lifelong Guidance in ESL Initiatives: Implications and recommendations

curricular and extracurricular activity, and to mobilise a range of stakeholders (teachers, school counsellors, parents and employers).

• There is some evidence to suggest that engage- ment with lifelong guidance can have an impact on an individual’s short- to medium-term earn- ings as well as to foster a more optimistic out- look in relation to work and life.

Supporting these statements, CEDEFOP (2010) for- mulated a number of basic principles for a lifelong career guidance policy:

• the focus is on individuals;

• the services offered teach them to manage their own careers;

• the services are accessible;

• the services are continuous and tailored to the individual’s needs;

• the services, products and guidance provided are of good quality.

With this backdrop, a number of ESL and guidance good practice examples and principles form the basis for the following recommendations in relation to lifelong guidance:

Guidance related to ESL should:

• play a role in changing the very system which produces ESL into more inclusive learning approaches, procedures, and policies;

• focus on the individual and be tailored to the individual’s needs: this includes his/her context and culture; learning and work issues which are not isolated from other life-roles;

• provide learning opportunities for individu- als to develop their career management skills (CMS);

• use a mix of guidance methods and approaches;

• be part of the curriculum;

• be continuous and accessible, including inno- vative use of ICT;

• be provided by or in collaboration with trained guidance experts/professionals;

• and be of good quality, including a focus on advocacy and feed-back.

Much of this can be - and is already - implemented

at EU Member State level. The European Commis-

sion can support such efforts by continuing its policy

efforts through recommendations and targets, such

as the European Youth Guarantee Initiative (Borbély-

Pecze and Hutchinson, 2013). No single initiative or

policy will provide the end solution to ESL, whether

this is considered as drop-out or push-out.

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Annex

A nnex : ESL g oo d p ra ctices r ep or ted b y E LG PN m em be rs a nd p ar tn er s.

Case NTitle and short description of good practiceFeatures of Lifelong Guidance o.

Syst em change

Individual CMS

Mix ed methods

Cur riculum

Prof essional

Acce ss

Con tinuous

Qualit y

1Adult education Initiative (AT) There are specific measures designed to help young people at risk. The PES provides many offers for adults, young people can catch on missing certificates through different measures Nachholen des Pflichtschulabschlusses oder der Matura. The PES targets low skilled 15-19 year olds to help them to catch-up on their compulsory school education and then complete an apprenticeship at a company. http://erwachsenenbildung.at/

±xxxxxx 2Apprenticeship coaching Rock Your Future (AT) There are specific measures designed to help young people at risk. The PES provides many offers for adults, young people can catch on missing certificates through different measures. The PES target low skilled 15-19 year olds to help them to catch-up on their compulsory school education and then complete an apprenticeship at a company. There is also apprenticeship-coaching for completing an apprenticeship at risk. https://www.wko.at/Content.Node/RockyourFuture-deinLehrlingscoach/Startseite---LehreFoerdern- Lehrlingscoaching.html

±xxxxxx 3Youth Coaching Scheme (AT) The scheme can ‘coach’ young people at risk and those with learning difficulties and disabilities for long periods of time. There is also a possibility to return to the coaching several times. www.neba.at/jugendcoaching www.bmbf.gv.at/jugendcoaching

xxxxxxxx 4Production schools (AT) There are about 20 Production schools in AT. Schools teach national curriculum subjects to 14-19 year olds, but deliver them almost entirely through project-based learning. Every young person is linked to an employer and all students have a job at the age 14 of alongside their studies. The enterprise assignments are funded by local businesses and provide genuine vocational experience. Production schools originate from DK.

xxxxxx 5Fit for Training’ pilot project [AusbildungsFIT] (AT) The ‘Fit for Training’ pilot project AusbildungsFIT is designed to provide young people, at their own pace, with basic qualifications and social skills. Youth Coaching is the gate keeper to enter this project. this measure http://ausbildungsfit.at/

xxxxxxx 6National Strategy on Early School Leaving (AT) Since the EU2020 ESL target has been achieved, the recent national ESL strategy aims to raise awareness among school leaders, school boards and responsible stakeholders and bring together different institutions to combat ESL in a more effective, co-ordinated way and by inter-connecting measures at diverse structural levels to support students at risk. The main focus is on prevention and intervention. There are also initiatives to tackle absenteeism by a new law, which regulates the co-operation of professionals in these support systems. www.bmbf.gv.at/schulabbruch

xxxx

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Annex

sysindCMSmixcurprofaccconqual 7Inclusive Vocational Training [Integrative Berufsausbildung] (AT) The Integrated Vocational Training (integrative Berufsausbildung) targets disadvantaged groups with special placement handicaps: ESL, many negative marks at the end of compulsory education or those originating from a special-needs school. Tailor-made training schedules and contents match the participants’ special needs. Integrated Vocational Training, including extended periods of training, replaces the previous preparatory apprenticeship (Vorlehre). www.wko.at/Content.Node/Service/Bildung-und-Lehre/Lehre/Rechtsinformation/t/Integrative_Berufsausbildung.html

xxxxxxxxx 8Co-operation between parents and schools (CH) Co-operation between parents and schools with the development of information material and courses for parents about the Swiss school system; intensifying the contact between schools and especially parents with a migrant background. www.berufsberatung.ch

xxxxxxxxx 9Case Management (CH) The Case Managementprogramme is provided by specialists to young people at risk entering vocational education, both during their education and when they are about to enter the labour market. http://www.hb.berufsbildung.ch http://www.hb.berufsbildung.ch/dyn/20850.aspx?lang=EN&action=detail&value=213&lex=0

xxxxxxxxx 10Motivation semesters [Motivationssemester] (CH) The Motivationssemester is a labour market programme targeting unemployed young people and offers them a fixed six month structure to allow them to choose their vocational path. www.treffpunkt-arbeit.ch/arbeitslos/arbeitsmarktliche_massnahmen_old_rbe/motivationssemester/

xxxxxxx 11Last Call (CH) Last Call is a public call through public media from the city and canton of Zürich for all young people leaving the compulsory school without a connecting solution as apprenticeship, training or further education. One afternoon after the long summer break after compulsory school, young people have the possibility to go to the career service centres in Zürich. They receive information and advice to get a solution for further training or guidance. www.ajb.zh.ch/internet/bildungsdirektion/ajb/de/aktuell.newsextern.-internet-de-aktuell-news-medienmitteilungen- 2014-last_call.html

xxxxx 12Preparatory Apprenticeship (CY) ESL between the ages of 15 and 17 have the opportunity to attend a new type of school, Preparatory Apprenticeship, for a year, at the end of which they are allowed to take examinations and re-enter mainstream schools (secondary or vocational schools).

xxxxxx 13‘VIP Kariéra II – KP’ (CZ) This national level project, devoted to career guidance under the conditions of curricular reform, focuses on four areas: development of a comprehensive electronic information and guidance system; development of online training titled “e-Kariéra +” for teachers and counsellors focusing on improving quality of counselling services; development of the Centre for Career Guidance for the provision of individual career guidance; provision of labour market analyses and information related to a.o. ESL. Activities related to ESL focus on providing good practice examples, methodologies on prevention and intervention measures. The most relevant measures are being tested and evaluated in schools www.infoabsolvent.cz

xxxxxxxxx

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Annex

sysindCMSmixcurprofaccconqual 14Roma teaching assistants (CZ) Formerly Roma teaching assistants, now teaching assistants (or pedagogical assistant) in general contribute to the transition process by helping disadvantaged students (medically or socially, including students from ethnic minorities) to adjust to the school environment, actively communicating with students, their families and the wider community, as well as helping teachers with educational activities. The teaching assistant works directly with students. www.asistentpedagoga.cz/

xxxxxxxxx 15Federal Programmes Educational Chains and Coaching for the transition to work for at-risk youth ‘ [Bildungsketten und Berufseinstiegsbegleitung] (DE) The Educational Chains initiative aims to support smooth transitions from general to vocational education in the dual system and to prevent drop-outs in both systems. It supports young people to prepare for their general school certificate and their vocational education by making use of existing programmes, that have proved to be successful, and connecting them like links in a chain in order to ensure transparency and efficiency. Pupils in grades seven or eight participate in an analysis of their potential, interests and aspirations to identify pupils which may face transition problems. These pupils receive vocational information and guidance and coaching throughout the transition process and beyond. www.bildungsketten.de/

xxxx±xxxx 16Partnership for competent career orientation for and with young people [Berufswegeplanung ist Lebensplanung - Partnerschaft für eine kompetente Berufsorientierung von und mit Jugendlichen] (DE) In this common statement (2008), the partners of the National Pact for Vocational Education and Young Professionals in Germany (Nationaler Pakt für Ausbildung und Fachkräftenachwuchs in Deutschland), i.e. the Federal Government and the central trade and industrial associations together with the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Culture of the Laender and the Ministers of Economic Affairs of the Laender, committed themselves to support young people in their career choice process. www.zdh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/themen/Bildung/Ausbildungspakt/Berufswegeplanung%20Erklaerung.pdf

xxxxxxxxx 17Action Framework to reduce the number of students leaving school without a first general education qualification, to secure transition from the lower secondary school to the next educational level or to vocational education and training in the dual system and to lower the number of trainee drop-outs [Handlungsrahmen zur Reduzierung der Zahl der Schülerinnen und Schüler ohne Schulabschluss, Sicherung der Anschlüsse, Verringerung der Zahl der Ausbildungsabbrecher] (DE) This official resolution of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Culture of the Laender provides a conceptual framework to reduce ESL. It recommends a range of measures and systemic developments, e.g. individualised support for youth at-risk, widening and intensifying activities of vocational education and orientation including stronger co-operation with employers and the economy and stronger co-operation and co-ordination with all actors involved. This 2007 recommendation is still valid; however the following resolution “Support strategy for poorer performing students” [Förderstrategie für leistungsschwächere Schülerinnen und Schüler] from 2010 also has very similar contents. www.kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2007/2007_10_18-Handlungsrahmen-Schulabbrecher_01.pdf

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Viittaukset

LIITTYVÄT TIEDOSTOT

The ELGPN work on lifelong guidance policies in 2011–12 will be situated in the context of EU 2020 and other EU policies in education, training and employment, in order to make

This is an independent Glossary commissioned by the European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network (ELGPN), a Member State network in receipt of EU financial support under

• To support the knowledge base of ELGPN members on relevant EU policy developments in education, training, employment and social inclusion; to gather and analyse data on how

1 Council of the European Union (2008). Council Resolution on better integrating lifelong guidance into lifelong learning strategies. 2905th Education, Youth and Culture

(National Resource Centre for Guidance; CIPS- Career Information and Counselling Centre; Centre for Career Guidance and Counselling for talented youth; Mobile Centres for rural

It notes that, while maintaining a cross-cutting approach to lifelong guidance policy development across sectors, a primary objective has been to deepen the interfaces

Thus, if the purpose of work-based learning is to orientate, to provide learning opportunities and to equip people with the skills and experi- ence to progress to

THE AIM OF THESE GUIDELINES is to provide advice and reference points for lifelong guidance policies and systems across the education, training, employment and social fields in