Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

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Tampere University Dissertations 516

Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

LAURA M. INHA

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Tampere University Dissertations 516

LAURA M. INHA

Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of

the Faculty of Built Environment of Tampere University,

for public discussion in the auditorium RG202

of the Rakennustalo building, Korkeakoulunkatu 5, Tampere, on 10 December 2021, at 12 o’clock.

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ACADEMIC DISSERTATION

Tampere University, Faculty of Built Environment Finland

Responsible supervisor and Custos

Adjunct Professor Tapio S. Katko Tampere University

Finland

Supervisor Adjunct Professor Jarmo J. Hukka Tampere University

Finland

Pre-examiners Professor Sveinung Sægrov Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)

Norway

Professor Eric Nealer

University of South Africa (UNISA) South Africa

Opponents Professor Sveinung Sægrov Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)

Norway

Professor Christelle Pezon International Institute of Management, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers France

The originality of this thesis has been checked using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service.

Cover design: Roihu Inc.

ISBN 978-952-03-2200-7 (print) ISBN 978-952-03-2201-4 (pdf) ISSN 2489-9860 (print) ISSN 2490-0028 (pdf)

http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-03-2201-4

PunaMusta Oy – Yliopistopaino Joensuu 2021

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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ABSTRACT

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TIIVISTELMÄ

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

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TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS

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(20)

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE PUBLICATIONS

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(21)

1 INTRODUCTION

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(22)

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1.1 Research objectives and questions

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1.2 Structure of the dissertation

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Figure 1. Structure of the dissertation. Abbreviations in the figure: WASH = water, sanitation and hygiene, DW = drinking water, WW = wastewater, SW = stormwater

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1.3 Reasoning for the case study selections

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1.3.1 Location and climate

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Figure 2. Location of the case studies (Mapswire, n.d.). Abbreviation used in the figure, WA = State of Washington

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Table 1. Selected, available climate statistics in the case study countries (World Bank, n.d. a, unless mentioned otherwise in the table)

Comparison metric United States

(Washington State)

Finland India Nigeria

Climate risk index 1990-2008, lower score higher climate risk; rank of 176 countries (Harmeling, 2009, annex 4, table 5.)

37; 18th 148;

160th

26; 7th 110;

121st Climate risk index 1999-2018, lower score higher

climate risk; rank of 181 countries (Eckstein et al., 2019, annexes, table 4.)

44; 27th 156;

166th

39;

17th

105;

117th Average annual temperature in 1986-2005 under high

emissions, RCP 8.5 with median probability [Degrees of Celsius] (Climate Impact Lab, 2021, map)

13 (9) 2 25 27

Estimated average annual temperature in 2040-2059 [Degrees of Celsius]

16 (12) 4 27 29

Mean annual precipitation in 1901-2016 [mm] 646 (970²) 519 1057 1165 Estimated annual precipitation rise in 2040-2059 [mm] 49 (small³) 70 52 -3.5

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1.3.2 Socio-economic situation and government type

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Table 2. Selected, available socio-economic and governance statistics in the case study countries (World Bank Open Data, unless mentioned otherwise in the table) Comparison metric in 2018

(unless mentioned otherwise)

United States

Finland India Nigeria

Government type (CIA, 2021, explore countries)

Constitutional federal republic

Parliamentary republic

Federal parliamentary republic

Federal presidential republic Total population [millions] 327

(Seattle 0.7⁴)

5.5 1366 201

Population growth [annual %] 0.5 0.1 1.0 2.6

Population density [people/km²] 36 18 455 215

Urban population [% of population] 82 85 34 50

Life expectancy at birth [years] 79 82 69 54

Mortality rate, under-5 years [per 1000 live births]

7 2 36 34 Primary school completion rate [% of

relevant age group]

100 100 94 (2017) 74 (2010)

Lower secondary completion rate [% of relevant age group]

103⁵ 99.5 85 (2017) 47 (2010)

GDP [US$, billions] 20,580 276 2,713 397

GDP growth [annual %] 2.9 1.5 6.1 1.9

GPD per capita [current US$] 62,996 50,031 2,006 2,028

Poverty headcount ration at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) [% of population]

1.0 (2016) 0.1 (2017) 23 (2011) 39 HDI 2019 (average annual HDI growth

1990-2019)

0.93 (0.24) 0.94 (0.59) 0.65 (1.42) 0.54 (1.25 in 2010-2019)

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1.3.3 Status and progress in the development of water services

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Table 3. Selected, available drinking water, sanitation, and wastewater statistics in the case study countries (World Bank Open Data, unless mentioned otherwise in the table) Comparison metric in 2017 (unless

mentioned otherwise)

United States

Finland India Nigeria

(rural) People using at least basic drinking water

services [% of population]

99 100 93 71 (56)

People using safely managed drinking water services [% of population]

99 100 n.a.*⁶ 20 (16)

People using at least basic sanitation services [% of population]

100 99 60 39 (31)

People using at safely managed sanitation services [% of population]

90 99 n.a. 27 (24)

People connected to a wastewater treatment plant through a public sewage network [% of population] (OECD, 2021, graph)

76 (2012) 85 (2019) n.a. n.a.

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Figure 3. Progress in the usage of at least basic drinking water (DW) and sanitation (S) services as percentage of population in United States, Finland, India, and Nigeria in 2000–2017 (Data from World Bank Open Data, graph by the author)

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Figure 4. Water component plot of ND-GAIN index score in 2014 (data released in November 2015), which captures the vulnerability of fresh water supplies to climate change (University of Notre Dame, 2020, visualizations)

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Figure 6. Time series plot 1995–2015 of ND-GAIN progress for Finland, United States, India, and Nigeria (University of Notre Dame, 2020, visualization)

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1.3.4 Relevance of the case study contexts and objectives

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Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

LAURA M. INHA

LAURA M. INHA

Developing Policies for Resilient Water Services

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

TIIVISTELMÄ

CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE PUBLICATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research objectives and questions

1.2 Structure of the dissertation

1.3 Reasoning for the case study selections