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Master’s Thes is

Enhanc ing Ind igenous Food Secur ity in the Arct ic: Through Law , Po l icy , and the Arct ic Counc i l .

Supervisor: Dr. Kamrul Hossain

Prepared by:

Shaun Cormier 0370918 University of Lapland

Faculty of Law

Master of International and Comparative Law: Arctic Law and Governance 2016

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University of Lapland Faculty of Law

Title: Enhancing Indigenous Food Securityinthe Arctic: Through Law, Policy, andthe Arctic Council

Author: Shaun Cormier Number of Pages: 91

Year: Spring 2016

Summary:

Food security haslong developed since President Roosevelt determinedit asthe “freedom from fear andthe freedom from want.” The concept surrounds four pillars: availability,

accessibility, utilization and stability; a failureto provide all fourislikelytoresultin anindividual or group asfoodinsecure. Indigenous Peoples, and especiallythoseinthe Arctic region, are deemed some ofthe most foodinsecure world-wide. Thisis a result from constant bombardment of

challenges andthreatsthat are facingthem daily,including climate change, shipping,tourism, mining, forestry, oil & gas. Thesethreats haveimpactedthe Indigenous way oflife andtheir

environment,leadingto a shift away fromtraditional foodstowards more store-boughtfoods. These changes have resultedintremendous healthimpacts on Indigenous Peoplesthrough nutrition

content and food contamination. Onthe other hand, a number of hard and softlaw mechanismsare currentlyin place directly andindirectly aimedto promoting and protectingfood securityinthe Arctic and associated rights, such asthe rightto food andthe rightto culture; however,there are gapsthat still remain. Suggestionsto addressthese gaps have formulated around bothlegally binding and softlaw mechanisms, such as aninternational food securitytreaty and usingthe Arctic Council as a platform for protecting and promoting food security. Regardless, Indigenous Peoples, their rights and concerns all needto betakeninto account when concerning food security.

Keywords:

Indigenous Peoples Rights, Arctic, Food Security, Rightto Food, Arctic Council. Furtherinformation:

I consentthe use ofthis Master´sthesistothe University of Lapland,the Arctic Center andthe University ofthe Arctic.

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Acknowledgment:

First and foremost, I wouldliketo acknowledgethose peoples whotakethetime andeffortto gathertheir food naturally fromthe earth andin a safe and sustainable way. These people arethe inspiration forthisthesis and I writethisinthe hopesthatthey can continuethesetraditions and practices. Throughthis work, I have discoveredthe realimportance ofthis food, for our bodies and health,in a worldthatis pronetothreats and disease.

To my family and friends back home,fortheimmense support during my studies overthelast few years. Especiallythose who havetakenthetimeto come visit and meet mein different places aroundthe world. You haveinspired everydayto continue studying,travelling and doingthethings Ilove.

To Kamrul Hossain,thank you for being my mentor and supervisor overthe past months. I have gained a wealth of knowledge from you onfood security, human rights and even on howto be a betterresearcher. I appreciatethe opportunityto work with you and yourteam and allowing me add to Arctic research by being anintern under NIEM andthe HuSArctic project.

To Finland,thank you for being my second home overthelastthree years and givingthe chanceto expand my knowledge and educationin your beautiful country. The free schooling has presented me withthe opportunityto belearn much more aboutthe Finnish culture and way oflife.

To Petri and Johanna, for being my Finnish parents during mytime here andtaking meinto your family. For being anincredible support system and by beingthere for me whenever I needed anything. Petri,thanks for being a friend and showing me atrue Lappi experience, and Johanna, for being kind andfilling my belly with warm food.

To Curtis, for being a greatfriend overthelast few years, even duringthe difficulttimes,it will never be forgotten. Alsothe supportthroughthe sharing of memories andlaughs, I sure am glad you cameto Finland.

To Karol,thanks for being a friend and mentor, especiallyin bothhelping me getintothis program and for helping me get out.

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Table of Contents

Abstract………. Acknowledgement………

Table of Contents………. Abbreviations………. Introduction.

∑ Food security.

∑ Importance for Indigenous Peoples.

∑ Improving food security.

1. Prevailing Problems/Challengesin the Arctic affecting Food Security. 1.1 Climate change related consequences.

1.2Increasein Human Activities.

1.3 Contamination of food supply chain:the resulting consequences of overall challenges 1.4Reduced supply oftraditional food: safety and contamination.

1.5 Replacement oftraditional foodthroughimported food:the consequences of consumption.

1.6 Conclusion.

2. The Tools to Promote Food Security. 2.1 Legalinstruments.

2.1.1 United Nations Convention onthe Law ofthe Sea. 2.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity.

2.1.3 Marine.

∑ Oil Spill Prevention, Administration and Response Convention.

∑ Minimata Convention on Mercury. 2.1.4 Shipping.

∑ International Regulation of Ship Source Pollution.

∑ International Conventionforthe Prevention of Pollutionfrom Ships.

∑ Polar Code. 2.1.5 Atmosphere.

∑ Convention on Long-Range Trans-Boundary Air Pollution.

∑ Persistent Organic Pollutants Treaty.

∑ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change & Kyoto Protocol.

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2.1.6 Land.

∑ Agreement onthe Conservation of Polar Bears.

∑ Basel Convention.

2.1.7 International Labour Organization No. 169.

2.1.8 Judicial decisions: Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

2.2 Mitigation and Adaptationto Environmental Problems andthe Promotion of Sustainable Development: Highlightingthe Arctic Council.

2.2.1 Stockholm Conference. 2.2.2 Rio Conference.

2.2.3 United Nations Environmental Programme.

∑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2.2.4 Arctic Council.

∑ Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme.

∑ Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response.

∑ Arctic Contaminants Action Program.

∑ Sustainable Development Working Group.

∑ Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.

∑ Protection ofthe Arctic Marine Environment.

∑ Task Forces.

2.2.5 Indigenous Peoples as Actors.

2.3 Procedural Measuresto Help Improve Food Security or Safeguard Contamination. 2.3.1 World Trade Organization.

2.3.2 European Union. 2.4 Conclusion.

3. Food Security from Human Rights Perspective. 3.1Is food protected as a basic human right?

3.2Is food protected as a cultural right?

3.3 Conclusion.

4. Arctic Council as a Platform for Food Securityin the Arctic. 4.1Whythe Arctic Council?

4.2 Food Security Working Group.

4.2.1 Task force addressing food security.

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4.3Indigenous participationthroughthe Arctic Council. 4.4 Hardlaw vs. softlawinthe Arctic.

4.5 Food securityinthe Arctic: a way forward.

5. Gaps and recommendations………

6. Conclusion………

7. References……….

Abbreviations

AAC – Arctic Athabaskan Council.

ACAP – Arctic Contaminants Action Program. ACIA – Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. AEPS – Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. AHHEG – Arctic Human Health Expert Group. AIT – Assessment Integration Team.

AMAP – Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. BEAC – Barents Euro-Arctic Council.

BEAR – Barents Euro-Arctic Region. BRC – Barents Regional Council.

CAFF – Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.

CACAR – Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report. CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity.

CEDAW – Convention onthe Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. CESCR – Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

COP – Conference of Parties.

CRC – Convention onthe Rights ofthe Child.

EPPR – Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response. EU – European Union.

FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization ofthe United Nations. GHG – Greenhouse Gas.

HRC – Human Rights Committee.

IACHR –Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

ICESCR –International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

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ICC –Inuit Circumpolar Council.

ICCPR – International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

IIPFCC –International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change. ILO –International Labour Organization.

IMO –International Maritime Organization.

IPCC –Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

LRTAP – Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

MARPOL –International Convention forthe Prevention of pollution from Ships. NGO – Non-Governmental Organization.

OSPAR – Oil Spill Prevention, Administration and Response Convention. PAME – Protection ofthe Arctic Marine Environment.

POPs – Persistent Organic Pollutants. SAO – Senior Arctic Official.

SDWG – Sustainable Development Working Group.

SOLAS –International Convention forthe Safety of Life at Sea. SPS Agreement – Application of Sanitary Phytosanitary Measures. TBT – Technical Barriersto Trade.

UN – United Nations.

UNCLOS – United Nation Convention onthe Law ofthe Sea. UDHR – Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

UNECE – United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. UNEP – United Nations Environmental Programme.

UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. WHO – World Health Organization.

WMO – World Meteorological Organization. WTO – World Trade Organization.

WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature.

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Introduction:

Food Security

Issues surrounding food security were extremely prominent and had widespreadimpacts duringthe Great Depression ofthe 1930s. Earlyintheturn ofthe century,food was sparse globally. It was notedin a report on Nutrition and Public Healthin 1935thatthere was an acute food

shortagein poor countries because oflow purchasing power and soon becamethe first explanation of hunger and malnutrition globally.1As a result, a number of countries developed nutritional

policies and discussion of food securityissues became further projectedintheinternational political arena, mainlythroughthe League of Nations, which wasthe predecessortothe United Nations.2 These discussions werethe beginning offurtherinternational cooperation and studies of food productioninternationally. Food was conceptualized differently and begantoinclude examining foodin relationshipto health, economics, and politics.3Duringthe Second World War,there were continued debates atthe League of Nations on nutrition and food security.4A noteworthy debate wasthe Hot Springs Conference of 1943. This conferenceledtothe creation ofthe Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations(FAO) where President Roosevelt determined food to be “the first want of man.”5As an outcome ofthe conferenceit was solidifiedthat food would be examined underthree main categories: consumptionlevels and requirements; expansion of

productions and adaptationto consumer needs; and facilitation andimprovement of distribution.6 The concept of food security was born, alongside Roosevelt’s well-knownterms, “the freedom from want andthe freedom from fear.” His phrase “freedom from want” meant a secure, adequate and suitable supply of food for every man, man woman and child.7Roosevelt statedthat

“secure” referredtothe accessibility of food, “adequate” referredtothe quantitative sufficiency of the food supply and “suitable” referredtothe nutrient content ofthe food supply.8The ultimate objective of food security atthistime wastoinsure ‘an abundant supply ofthe right kinds of food

1Akram-Lodhi, A. Haroon, "World Food Security: A History since 1945." CanadianJournal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d'études du développement 28.3-4, 2009, p. 6.

2Ibidem.

3Ibidem, p. 7.

4Ibidem, p. 8.

5Ibidem.

6Ibidem, p. 8-9.

7Committee on World Food Security, “Comingto Terms with Terminology: Food Security, Nutrition Security, Food Security and Nutrition, Food and Nutrition Security.” Thirty-ninth Session, Rome, Italy, October, 15-20, 2012, CFS 2012/39/4, p. 4, Par. 6.

8Ibidem.

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for all mankind.’ This fosteredtheimportance of dietary standardsto guide agricultural and economic policies cultivatingthe diet and health ofthe world’s population.9Duringthistime food security servedtwo purposes. Firstly,to protect both producers and consumers from uncontrolled market fluctuationsin world agricultural production and prices. Secondly,to usethe agricultural

“surpluses”to assist economic and social developmentin developing countries without creating a deterrentto domestic production or disruptlocal andinternationaltrade.10

Atthe World Food Summitin 1996, 53 years afterthe Hot Springs Conference of 1943, wastheinception ofthe most widely used and quoted definition of food securitythat we have today. Itis defined as, “food security exists when all people at alltimes have physical, social and economic accessto sufficient, safe and nutritious foodto meettheir dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthylife.”11This definition was officially reaffirmed atthe 2009 Declaration ofthe World Food Summit on Food Security. Food securityis representedthrough four pillars: availability, accessibility, utilization and stability;itisimportantto remember, aslong as these four pillars are fulfilled, a population orindividualis saidto be food secure. However,if any one ofthese pillars are not fulfilled anindividual or groupis determinedto be foodinsecure. Despitethe definition becoming widely used and recognized, many groupsin society who define food securityintheir ownterms. One ofthese groups are Indigenous Peoples, who present an alternate definition of food security. Indigenous Peoples claimthe current definitions of food security areinadequate asthey rely entirely onthe assessment of monetary accessto market food, whereasthese Peoples also consumetraditional foods, which are harvested fromtheland.12

Therefore, a popular argument by(Egeland et al., 2010; Power, 2008; Lambden, Receveur and Kuhnlein, 2007) statesthatthe definitions of food security for Indigenous People shouldinclude assessment oftraditional foodintake andthe stability of accesstotraditional foods.13Itis crucialto consider all aspects pertainingto food security,including Indigenous definitions of food security, as it gives a base of understandingto developthe overall concept further.

The concept of food security has beenimplemented as one ofthe Millennium Development Goals, whereit was successfully achieved byreducing extreme poverty ratesin half

9Akram-Lodhi, A. Haroon, "World Food Security…”, op. cit., p. 3.

10Ibidem, p. 5.

11Committee on World Food Security. “Coming to Terms with Terminology: Food Security…”, op. cit., p. 5.

12Egeland, G. M., et al., "Health disparities: promotingIndigenous Peoples' health through traditionalfood systems and self-determination." Indigenous peoples'food systems and well-being:interventions and policiesfor healthy communities,2013: 9-22, p. 17.

13Ibidem.

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as of 2010. Food securityis animportantinternationaltopic, as foodis deemed afundamental human right for all people and necessary for survival, yetthere are still about 795 million people that are going hungry globally.15

The Arctic region ofthe worldisthe northernmost area ofthe globalit encompasses eight countries, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Iceland, Denmark (Greenland), Canada, andthe United States. Many definethe Arcticin various ways, but some common ones arethe Arctic Circle,treeline, and permafrostline. There are roughly four millionpeoplelivinginthe Arctic region,16of which 10% claimto be Indigenous.17Indigenous Peoples areidentified as some ofthe mostfoodinsecure worldwide. Accordingto a recent study, Inuit people of Canada wherethey have the highestlevel of foodinsecurity within a developed country above all other Indigenous Peoples at 68%.18Forthe purpose ofthis paper,I will be focusing onthe food security situation of all Indigenous Peopleslocatedinthe Arctic region.

Importancefor Indigenous Peoples

Before grocery stores and markets, Indigenous Peoples usedtheirland, knowledge and surroundingsto provide fortheir families and communities. These peoples would beconsidered food secure, defined usingtoday’s standards,long beforethe concept had been developed or a complete understanding of whatit meantto be food secure. Indigenous Peoples have practiced traditional methods of food securitythrough gathering and hunting food and have masteredthis process overthe course of many generations. Their perception of food reaches beyond basic survival, asitis deeply rootedintheir culture andtraditions. Furthermore, Ellen Woodley

summarizesthattheir “cultural practices andtraditional food systems are mutually supportive and both are vital fortheir food security and overall well-being.”19Noreen Willows describedtraditional food as, “those culturally accepted foods available fromlocal natural resourcesthat constitutethe

14United Nations, “We Can End Poverty: Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015.” http://www.un.org/

millenniumgoals/. Accessed April, 17, 2016.

15FAO,IFAD and WFP, “The State of FoodInsecurityin the World 2015.” Meeting the 2015international hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress, Rome, FAO,2015, p. 4.

16The Arctic, “Population.”http://arctic.ru/population/. Accessed April, 17, 2016.

17The Arctic Centre, “ArcticIndigenous Peoples.” http://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/communications/arcticregion /Arctic-Indigenous-Peoples. Accessed April, 17, 2016.

18CBC News,Inuit go hungry more than any otherindigenous group: report.” March, 27, 2014.

http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/inuit-go-hungry-more-than-any-other-indigenous-group-report-1.2588107.

Accessed April, 17, 2016.

19Woodley, Ellen, et al., "Culturalindicators ofIndigenous Peoples'food and agro-ecological systems." SARDInitiative commissioned by FAO and theInternationalIndia Treaty Council, 2006: 1-104, p. 6.

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food systems of Indigenous Peoples.”Dependency onthistraditional food has been vital forthe health, culture, food security and survival of Indigenous Peoples aroundthe world. The diet of traditional animal fats, meat, agriculture, and berries contributelargelytothe well-being of Indigenous Peoples by providingthe nutritional content needed for a healthy and sustainable

lifestyle. The methods of gathering and hunting requires routine physical activityin orderto process the food and makeit available for consumption, and allowindividualsto maintaintheir daily

exercise for a balancedlifestyle.In addition, Woodley articulatesthat, “traditional foods and food practices are deeplyintertwined withtheir cultures and value systems, and play andimportant role in religious ceremonies and spirituality, as well asin songs, dances and myths.”21Throughoutthe entire food system process, many stories aretold, shared and passed on amongst many generations and families. Stories could perhaps describein detailthe connectiontotheland, environment, food, community, family, religion and animals. Woodley demonstratesthat“ceremonies, oraltraditions such as stories, songs and oral histories and other cultural practices such as reciprocityareimportant cultural elementsinthe maintenance andtransmission of knowledge and practices oftraditional food and agro-ecosystems.”22Where she explainsthat, “theloss of cultural practices creates disconnectinthe relationship between culture andtraditional food systems.”23

Asthe world changes, so doesthelivelihoods of Indigenous Peoples andtheir food security situation. Thisis eminentforthose Indigenous populationsinthe Arctic region who are facing daily threats from climate change, such asloss of access and availability offood; humaninducedthreats, such as pollution and environmental damage; and other sources, such as airborne contamination. It is believedthat Indigenous Peoplesinthe Arctic are some ofthe most vulnerabletothethreats of climate change, mainly because oftheir dependence onthe natural environment for survival. All of thesethreats are having a drasticimpact onthe waythese peoples havelived for generations. There must be creative solutionsto counteractthesethreats and preserve food security amongthese

peoples.

Improvingfood Security

Inthe past few decadesthere have been plenty of world-wideinitiatives aimed atimproving food security. Many are directed atthethreatsto food security and most specifically onthethreats

20Willows, Noreen D., "Determinants of healthy eatingin Aboriginal peoplesin Canada: the current state of

knowledge and research gaps." Canadian Journal of Public Health/Revue Canadienne de Sante'e Publique, 2005, Vol. 96:3. S32-S36, p. S32.

21Woodley, Ellen, et al., "Culturalindicators ofIndigenous Peoples'food…”, op. cit., p. 3.

22Ibidem, p. 5.

23Ibidem.

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that climate change poses. Threatsto food security affect different populationsin different ways and magnitudes andtherefore, should be addressedin a waythat caterstothe specific circumstances of various demographics. There are effortstoimprove food securitythrough different measures and mechanisms, such as adaptation and mitigation,legally bindinglaw(hardlaw), soft-law, and plenty of other strategiesthatinvolve many stakeholders. These efforts are carried out onthelocal, national andinternationallevel among all countries worldwide.

I would arguethatisit mostimportantto analyze food security from alegal perspective. In doing so, appropriate measures must be establishedto counteractthesethreats andthere must be an obligation on statesto protectindividual and collective rights surroundingfood security. Some of the rights surrounding food securityincludetherightto food andthe rightto culture. These rights are protectedin mostinstances; however,there are gapsthat needto be addressedif we areto move forward. Moreimportantly,there must be effective monitoring and reporting of food securityinthe Arctic. We have come along wayin defining andimproving food security sincetheinitial Health and Nutrition Report of 1935, but much more needsto be done.

Chapter 1: Prevailing Problems/Challengesin the Arctic Affecting Food Security

The Arcticis a peaceful, vast region, with anincredible biodiversity ofland, people and animalsthat have maintainedtheir existencethere for countless generations. However,the Arctic andits population are currentlythreatened from a series of significant and dramatic changes occurring bothinside and outside ofthe region. Itis noteworthyto mentionthatthey overlap and contributetothe overalllevel of foodinsecurityinthe Arctic. Somethreatsinclude climate change, industrial and human activities, contamination of food supply chain,reduction oftraditional foods and subsequentlytheincreased replacement ofimported or store-bought foods. They all have a wide range of effects, but mostimportantly;they are extremely detrimentaltothe Indigenous way oflife. Therefore, I will describethistransformation andthe effects ontheland, environment, peoples, cultures, andtraditions while discussing howit contributesto overall foodinsecurityinthe Arctic.

1.1 Climate change related consequences

Chris Paci, et al. describes climate change as a, “real and significantthreatto food securityinthe Arctic andtothe existence of northern Indigenous Peoples.”24Paci, et al. continues to describethe phenomenon by pointing outthat, “climate change has graspedinternational

24Paci, Chris, et al., "Food security of northernindigenous peoplesin a time of uncertainty." 3rd Northern Research Forum Open Meeting, 2004, p. 1.

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attention withtheincreased emissions of greenhouse gases, namely carbon dioxide (CO2), consequentiallyfromindustrial development.”25Thisindustrial development has elapsed, starting withtheindustrial boominthe 19thCentury and wellintothe start ofthe 21stCentury. Duringthis time, people have beguntotake notice of environmental changes andthe negative effects of

continuousindustrial output,identifyingit as notjust alocal problem but part of a muchlargerissue with far-reaching consequences. These changes, such as natural disasters and weather patternshave been well documented by Indigenous Peoplesthroughtheirinteractions withtheland.The more that climate change continuestoinfluencethe environment,the greaterthe outcome on Indigenous Peoples’ foodinsecurity. The repercussions ofthis phenomenon are detrimentaltothe four pillars of food security: availability, accessibility, utilization and food systems stability.26Ifthese challenges persist,the crisesinfood supply, duetotemporal fluctuationsin food resources,is expectedto be more often,longer and moreintense.27Indigenous Peoples are suffering from a great risk of uncertainty caused by climate change, as Paci, et al. explainsthisis dueto “the availability and predictability oftraditionally harvested and consumed foods, as well asthe quality and quantity ofthese foods beingimpacted.”28

The availabilityof foodis determined bythe physical quantities of foodthat are produced, stored, processed, distributed and exchanged.29Physical quantitiesinthe Arctic are constantlyfluctuating with shifting seasons,temperatures and weather patterns. Variations cause unpredictability on how much or when most food will be available. Traditional food fromthe ground, such as berries, shrubs, and vegetables will be subjectto such alterations. Hunting animals becomes a dauntingtask; migration patterns adjust makingit difficulttotrack caribou, bowhead whale, fish and other bird species. Therefore, dueto climate changethe availability of suchfood sources has become unpredictable and unreliable. In which case,thetrendsfor high market prices offood aroundthe worldis usually a reflection and determinant ofinadequate availability and now theseimpacts are feltinthe Arctic.30Subsequently,the FAO mentions, “with high prices of food poor people are forcedto reducetheir consumption belowthe minimum required for a healthy and activelife, andthis mayleadto food riots and social unrest.”31Therefore, asthe availability of

25Ibidem, p. 3.

26Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Climate Change and Food Security: A Framework Document.” Rome, 2008, p. 18.

27Paci, Chris, et al., "Food security of northern …”, op. cit., p. 3.

28Ibidem, p. 1.

29Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “Climate Change and …”, op. cit., p. 20.

30Ibidem.

31Ibidem.

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traditional foods for Indigenous Peoplesis unpredictable,the dependence on store-bought food does increase.

Accessibility accordingtothe FAO, “is a measure ofthe abilityto secure entitlements, which arethose set of resources (legal, political, economic and social)that anindividual requiresto obtain accessto food.”32The definition has since expanded, now recognizing boththeindividual and household accessto food. The environmentis a crucial resource for obtaining accessto foodin the Arctic, where changestothe environment could pose challengesto food accessibility. For example,the Canadian Inuit often usetheiceto catch fish, whales, seals, and many marine

mammals; whentheice retreats,their accesstothis food becomeslimited,asthe strength oftheice could be potentially hazardous. Consequently, Indigenous Peoples now haveto venturefurtherto huntthan ever before, across unpredictableterrain, which could become dangerous and costlythe furtherthey go. In northern Scandinaviathe Indigenous Sami population often migrate withtheir reindeer duringthe summer and winter monthsto find appropriate feeding grounds forthe herd. Attributingto changing weather patterns,the frequentthawing and freezing has hamperedthe reindeers’ accessibilityto food underthe snow.In addition,the Sami rely ontraditional food such as grouse, elk, fresh and saltwater fish, and berries; buttheir accessto such foodis changing with climate patterns.33It remains obviousthat climate changethreatensthe accessibility oftraditional food for all Indigenous Peoples acrossthe Arctic.

Food utilizationreferstothe appropriate nutritional content ofthe food and ability of the bodyto useit effectively,34in other wordsthe safety and social value of food. The nutritional contentthatthe body needsto survive, high protein, vitamins, oils, natural fats and other nutrients are all foundinthetraditional foodthat Indigenous Peoples eat. Alack ofthis food duetolimited accessibility and availability could promotethe consumption of store-bought foods andleadto further healthimplications. Evidenceindicatesthat warmingtemperaturesinthe Arctic canthreaten the safety of food, as pathogenstendtothriveinthis atmosphere.35Food safetyis a concern

throughoutthe whole food systems process, from of huntingthe animal,to storage, cooking and ingestion. The whole processis notin a controlled environment sothe risk of pathogensand bacteriainfood can be significantly higher. Increasein bacteria could occur as hunters haveto

32A. Sen, 1989, citedin FAO, 2003a, In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Climate Change and Food Security: A Framework Document.” Rome, 2008, p. 20.

33Berg, Elisabeth, “Sami traditions: Márkomeannu´s contribution to the revitalization of Samifood traditions.” The Arctic University of Norway,November, 2014, p. 32.

34Burke, Marshall, and David Lobell, "Climate effects on food security: an overview." Climate Change and Food Security,Springer, Netherlands, 2010, 13-30, p. 14.

35Ibidem, p. 28.

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travel furthertolocatethe food andthe additionaltimeittakestotransportit.Furthermore, many of the disease agentsto which marine mammals are susceptible are of concernto human health asthey can betransferred between animals and humans.36

Lastly, climate change can disturbthe overall food systems stability,whichis when one or more ofthe four components of food securityis uncertain andinsecure. This food systems stabilityreferstothe overall balance of food supply andis determined bythetemporal availability of, and accessto, food.37The globalized economy we havetodayis highly sophisticated and has thus far managesto provide us withthe necessary accessibility and availability of food. However, predictions of weather changes andincreasedtemperatures couldthreatenthe current food systems that arein placeleadingto astronomicalramifications. In recent years,there have been surges of food riots all aroundthe worldinresponsetotheincreased price andlimited availability of foods. The current food systems are not dependent onthelocal changes anymore;instead, we arefacing these vulnerabilities onthe globallevel. Indigenous Peoplesinthe Arctic are experiencingthe high cost of groceries fromimported foods asthey move away fromtraditional foodsinto a more

market-based economy. These changes have animpact on human health,livelihood assets, food production and distribution channels, as well as changing purchasing power and market flows.38 Numerousimpacts overlap one another creating domino effects on different areas ofthe food systems. This revealsthe powerthat climate change has overthelives ofthe Indigenous Peoplesin the Arctic.

1.2 Increasein human activities

The Arctic has seen more human activityin recent decadesthan ever before. Some undertakingsinvolve mining, oil drilling, forestry,tourism, fishing, and shipping. Multinational companies arelookingtowardsthe Arctic asthe next big opportunity, butthe awareness of potential effects onthe population, animals and environmentis paramount. Large-scale projects aretaking place acrossthe whole circumpolar north, sometimesin remote areasthat are environmentally sensitive ortraditional hunting grounds of Indigenous Peoples.

There are a number of concerns surroundingthe miningindustry. Greenpeace believes that strip mining can destroythelandscapes, forest and wildlife habitats aroundthe mine site; rain takestheloosetop-soil and can washitinto waterways which can hurt fish and other wildlife;

36Burek, Kathy A., Frances MD Gulland, and Todd M. O'Hara, "Effects of climate change on Arctic marine mammal health." Ecological Applications18.sp2, 2008: S126-S134, p. S132.

37Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Climate Change and Food Security…”, op. cit., p. 21.

38Ibidem, p.iii.

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chemical contamination ofthe groundwater and especiallythose used bylocal residents; as well as noise pollution and dust from machinery.39The consequences of mining can have dangerous

impacts on Indigenous food sources. Theloss of wildlife habitatis an obvious and common concern withindustrial activity and motorized vehicles posing a hazardto nearby animals. Animals and humans alike can easily digest chemicals and heavy metalsinthe water supply. Noise could

potentially disrupt wildlife causing nearby speciesto migrate further, forcingIndigenous Peoplesto travel a greater distanceto hunt or find new hunting grounds alltogether.

Oil and gas projects areincreasingtheir attentiontothe region, where accordingtothe United States Geological Survey;40the Arcticisto accountfor approximately 13% of undiscovered oil and 30% of undiscovered natural gas. Oil and gas activityis reason for concern and expressed internationally by advocates against such development. Accordingtothe World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF),there are a number of concerns surroundingthe oil and gasindustry. Someinclude, ineffective clean up methodsintheinstance a spill does occur, noise caninjure marine animals as they use soundto navigatethe oceanto find food, and both drilling and production can disturbthe fish and other animals which have both an economic and food value.41In addition, Mark Nuttall explainsthat, “polar bears, seals, sea otters and sea birds are already frequent casualties of oil contamination, while bowhead whale migration routesthrough oil and gaslease areasinthe

Chuckchi Sea could be seriously disruptedif development goes ahead.”42Any ofthe above changes can affectthe food position of nearby Indigenous communities.

Forestryis a prominentindustryin Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia; however,if we definethe Arctic asthe area abovethetreeline,thenitis safeto saythat forestry does not exist inthe Arctic. Regardless of howthe Arcticis defined, forestry does have animpact on Arctic Indigenous Peoples andtheir food security.In Finland and Sweden,forests comprise of 74% and 60% ofthetotalland area respectively.43In Finland, accordingtothe FAO, forestry accounted for four percent ofthe gross domestic product (GDP) andthe highest among developed countriesin

39GreenpeaceInternational, “MiningImpacts.” April, 15, 2010, http://www.greenpeace.org/

international/en/campaigns/climate-change/coal/Mining-impacts/. Accessed April 1, 2016.

40U.S. Geological Survey, “90 Billion Barrels of Oil and 1,670 Trillion Cubic Feet of Natural Gas Assessedin the Arctic.”

July, 23, 2008,http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1980#.VxcG8aPyXIU. Accessed April, 17, 2016.

41World Wide Fundfor Nature, “Arctic Oil and Gas.” http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we _work/arctic/what_we_do/oil_gas/. Accessed April, 1, 2016.

42Nuttall, Mark, “The Arcticis changing.” Stefansson ArcticInstitute andindividual authors, 2000, p. 1.

43Baldursson, Snorri, “Module 10: Living Terrestrial Resources of the Arctic and Their Use.” University of the Arctic, p. 8.

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Europe. Inthesefour countries, forestry has become a much more sustainable after many decades of practice. However, despiteincreased sustainable practices,thereis no denyingthatit has

a considerableinfluence overthelocal environment. The Sami arelocal Indigenous Peoples of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Northwestern Russia, who often usetheland and environment for theirtraditional hunting, gathering and cultural practices. Resultingina number of disagreements betweenthe forestindustry andthelocal Sami people overthe effects of forestry related activities ontheirlivelihoods.45The reason for such disagreements arise because many Samitraditional activities heavily rely onthe forest environment. For example, reindeer usethe areasfor food such aslichen ortree-hanginglichen andthe Samitaketheir reindeerto specificlocationsinthe forestto graze, especially duringthe winter months.46Furthermore,these herding areas consists of

coniferous forests and are heavily exploited bythe forestryindustry.47Many companies are focused onthe commercial objects and may or may not realizetheimpactsthey are having onthe

Indigenous way oflifethrough such activities. The forests are not only used for herding but all acrossthe Arctic a great source of food comes fromthis environment,includingtraditional foods such as berries, herbs, shrubs,lichen, moose, caribou,lynx, and wolverine.

Shipping hasincreased drasticallyinthe Arctic asthe seaice continuesto retreat progressively each year. The Northern Sea Route Information Office has started recordingthe number oftransits acrossthe Northern Sea Route;in 2011,they recorded 41 vessels, whilein 2013 itreached a peak of 71.48Both Arctic shipping routes;the Northwest Passage,through Canada’s archipelago; andthe Northern Sea Route, north of Russia, are believedto have substantialtime and cost savings forinternational shipping companies. These routes are estimatedto save hundreds of thousands of dollars each yearinterms of cost savings andtime.Charlotte McDonald-Gibson quotes Ron Sallet, a managerin Rotterdam forthe Cosco Group determiningthat, “ships can save about 12 daysintheirjourney by usingthe Northern Sea Route andtherefore, savingon bothfuel and money.”49However, someIndigenous Peoples usethe coastal areas for fishing, hunting, and

44Lebedys, Arvydas and Yanshu Li, “Contribution of the Forestry Sector to National Economies, 1990 – 2011.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2014, p. 35.

45Lawrence, Rebecca and Kaisa Raitio, “Forestry conflictsin Finnish Sapmi: Local, National and Global Links.”

Indigenous affairs4, 2006.

46Ididem, pp. 1-2.

47Association of World Reindeer Herders, “Sami & Finns – Finland.” Reindeer Herding: A virtual guide to reindeer and the people who herd them.http://reindeerherding.org/herders/sami-finns-finland/. Accessed April, 1, 2016.

48Northern Sea RouteInformation Office, “Transit Statistics.” http://www.arctic-lio.com/nsr_transits. Accessed April, 1, 2016.

49McDonald-Gibson, Charlotte, “The shippingforecastitll be colder but much, much quicker: New Arctic shipping route saves up to two weeks travel between Asia and Europe.” TheIndependent, September, 11, 2013,

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-shipping-forecast-it-ll-be-colder-but-much-much-quicker- new-arctic-shipping-route-saves-up-to-8810085.html. Accessed April, 1, 2016.

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economic benefits, andthey could be effected bythe surgein Arctic shipping. This activity could have grave consequence onthe marine environment, especially disruptionsto natural mating and migration patterns. Inturn, Indigenous Peoples who rely onthe marine ecosystem for food and traditional practices will be at aloss. Amplifiedtraffic could witness minor discharges from marine vessels, such astankers, freighters, fishing boats and coastal ferries,in whichthey may not be readily monitored, buttheirimpression on Arctic ecosystems may be substantial nonetheless.50The discharge mentioned referstothe ballast waterthat ships useto balancetheload ofthe ship. This water could be gatheredfromthe south and dispersedinthe north, causinginvasive species. Althoughthe outcomes ofinvasive species are still beingresearched, Lisa Palmer believes,

“shippingis by farthe most common pathway for marineinvasive species, responsible for 69 percent of speciesintroductionsto marine areas.”51Decreases ofice andincrease of shipping could alterthe marine ecosystem balanceinthe Arctic. Ships have struck whales, a common food for Inuit Peoples,resultingin many deaths and affectingthe conservation of food securityinthe Arctic.52

Lastly,tourismis startingto makeits way north, asindividuals aimto explorethe relatively unexplored. Similartoincreased shipping, ferries and other shiptraffic carryingtourists arelikelyto havethe risk of vessel accidents, spills, pollution discharge andtherefore alikely blow tothe Arctic environment. Tourismis also a very new and realthreatinthe Arctic. The use of helicopters and planes for recreational purposes can produce disturbing noise for seabirds,

subsequently causing panic flights,leadingtothe eggloss.53Bird eggs are a food sourcein summer months, as Inuit usually go out and collectthem duringthe spring.54In addition, sports fishing and hunting has gained popularityinthe arctic, but frequently puts pressure on resources andleadsto conflicts betweenlocal and visiting hunters.55Overall, a surgeintourism means a risein garbage and waste, exclusivelyin an area where decompositionis slow and waste remains visible ontop of the permafrost for many areas.56

50Nuttall, Mark, “The Arctic…”, op. cit., p. 1.

51Palmer, Lisa, ”Melting ArcticIce Will Make Wayfor More Ships and More SpeciesInvasions.” Scientific American, March, 6, 2013, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/melting-arctic-sea-ice-means-more-shipping-and-more- invasive-species/. Accessed April, 1, 2016.

52Robards, Martin, “Resilience ofinternational policies to changing social-ecological systems: Arctic shippingin the Bering Strait.” In: Arctic ResilienceInterm Report 2013, Stockholm EnvironmentInstitute and the Stockholm Resilience Centre, p. 100.

53Snyder,John, “Tourismin the polar regions: the sustainability challenge.”UNEP/Earthprint, 2007, p. 15.

54Virtual Museum of Canada,Inuit:land and Sea – Hunting and Fishingfor Foodin the Arctic. Canadian Museum of History, 2000,http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/edu/ViewLoitDa.do;jsessionid=41D44DE5182820F3966F4BA 092D4F5C3

?method=preview&lang=EN&id=10896. Accessed April, 20, 2016.

55Snyder,John, “Tourismin the polar regions…”, op. cit., p. 15.

56Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, “Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status and Conservation.” 2001, p. 102, Box 36.

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