Motivation of secondary school students in science learning - Case study among 9th Graders in the Eastern Finland

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SCIENCE LEARNING

Case study among 9th Graders in the Eastern Finland

Philosophical Faculty School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education

Master Thesis Biambe Celestin Njua

November 2020

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ITÄ-SUOMEN YLIOPISTO – UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND Faculty

Philosophical Faculty

School

School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, Joensuu

Author

Celestin Njua Biambe Title

MOTIVATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SCIENCE LEARNING Case study among 9th Graders in the Eastern Finland

Main subject Education

Työn laji Master thesis

Date

November 2020

Number of pages 78

Abstract

Motivation is a key element in facilitating learning. This study has as prime focus to determine the association of students’ motivation with science learning among 9^th Graders in Joensuu North Eastern Finland. Specifically, the study examined; task value, working strategies, self-efficacy, and their relationship with students’ motivation in learning science. These objectives were further translated into three specific questions/hypotheses that directed the study. Participants in this study included 93 ninth graders in Eastern Finland. This sample constituted 57 girls and 43 boys. The study adopted a case study design to gather information from this group of students. The instrument used to collect data was the students’ motivation towards science learning likert scale questionnaire with four options. It constituted five parts and 135items. The collected data were analysed by means of both descriptive (means and standard deviations) and inferential statistics. From findings, it was shown that there exist no significant linked between task value and students’ motivation in science learning.

Nonetheless, there exist a significant positive association of working strategies, self-efficacy, and students’ motivation in science learning. Discussions and recommendations were made which include requesting educators to pay attention on arousing students’ curiosity and motivation so as to cause them to think critically, investigate, explore, create, synthesise and apply scientific knowledge. In addition, since self-efficacy showed a strong positive correlation with motivation in science learning, facilitators should therefore, pay keen attention when handling enactive mastery experience, which is the most crucial component associated with self-efficacy. As such, the consequences of previous academic failures ought to be lessened. Students should be exposed to successful role models who are their peers to boost their confidence that they can accomplish any given task. It was concluded that since motivation is a major key element for students to engage in any learning activity, motivational strategies should be well blended during the instructional process in order to enhance science learning.

Keywords: Motivation, Task value, Working strategies, Self-efficacy, Science learning

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Pa Biambe Benedict & Mama Agnes Younyi Thy infinite love shall be blessed forever.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I am exceptionally thankful to the University of Eastern Finland, for granting me the privilege to advance in my education and profession.

I am also indebted to Professor Tuula Keinonen, my supervisor, for all her support. She demonstrated enthusiasm for my project, assisted in designing the questionnaire that I used to collect data for this study. She kept encouraging me and gave me many other suggestions to shape my thinking about the study. Thank you for your collaboration.

Additional thanks to all the staff of the University of Eastern Finland and to the 9^th grade students of secondary schools in Joensuu, for their time and commitment in responding to the questionnaire items.

Finally, am thankful to all those who participated in one way or the other to ensure that this work is carried out with maximum efficiency. I immensely thank God Almighty for the strength to carry on with this academic work.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Keller’s subcategories of motivation and strategies………..……....8

Table 2: Some proposed instructional techniques to enhance student motivation……….…….14

Table 3: Data Coding Schedule………..……..28

Table 4: Gender………....…..30

Table 5: Interest in science studied………31

Table 6: I find physics in own life, living environment and society very interesting………32

Table 7: I find studying the health of own living environment issues interesting……….32

Table 8: Importance in issue of science studied……….………...…33

Table 9: I think what I learn on energy is important………..33

Table 10: the significance of living environment to the biodiversity of nature is important…….34

Table 11: Usefulness of science issue studies………34

Table 12: I think studying living environment issues are useful………...….………...…...…35

Table 13: I think studying issues related to wellbeing of people are useful………..35

Table 14: in the working method ……….36

Table 15: Mean of Task value/working method in terms of importance………...…36

Table 16: Usefulness of the working method ………...……37

Table 17: working strategy………...……….37

Table 18: self-concept/content ……….….38

Table 19: self-concept/working method..………..39

Table 20: Reliability Statistics………...…………40

Table 21: KMO and Bartlett's Test………...……….41

Table 22: Communalities of Variables………..42

Table 23: Total Variance Explained by each component………..43

Table 24: Rotated component Matrix of component loadings………..45

Table 25: Descriptive Statistics of variables………..….……..46

Table 26: Tests of Normality……….47

Table 27: Correlations………....49

Table 28: Model Summary……….………...51

Table 29: ANOVA^a………51

Table 30: Regression Coefficients for task value and method and students’ motivations in learning science………..………..……..…52

Table 31: Correlations……….…...…53

Table 32: Correlations………54

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Developing self-motivation (Schwartz, 2003) ……….…….13

Figure 2: Scree Plot representation of variance of components………44

Figure 3: Box plot representation of Learning (self-concept5 method) ………..……….…47

Figure 4: Box plot representation Learning (self-concept4) ……….47

Figure 5: Box plot representation of value/issue of the task………...……….…….48

Figure 6: Box plot representation of task value/working method……….……48

Figure 7: Scatter Plot representation of self_concept5……….…….48

Figure 8: Scatter Plot representation of self_concept1……….……….49

Figure 9: Scatter Plot representation of task_value2………..…………..……….49

Figure 10: Scatter Plot representation of issue_value1………..49

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1. INTRODUCTION

There is a growing acknowledgement regarding the relevance, global utility of scientific knowledge and skills in advanced or industralised societies. Parera, Bomhoff & Lee (2014) noted that science learning is particularly vital for both developed and developing nations in promoting technological advancement, competition in global economic and economic development. In the same light, Chinwe & Chukele (2008) opine that science ought to receive much emphasis in education because of its relevance to life and society in general. Science learning enhances the acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitudes that will enable learners advance individually and as well contribute to nation building. Thus, this field of study needs to be given adequate attention. Despite the relevance of science in the society, students show little or no interest and at a certain point of their studies they are not motivated to learn science. This is confirmed in a study conducted by Schreiner & Sjoberg (2004) who noted that young people seem to have developed hesitant attitudes as well as perceptions of science and technology.

Motivation has been identified to be a crucial component in the field of science (Koballa &

Glynn, 2007) thus learners must be motivated to study science. Motivation is known to be the prime element in promoting learning in any field of study. Generally, motivation is seen as the process of arousing, sustaining, and regulating activity. In pedagogy, motivation is referred to the art of using incentives to arouse learners’ interest for the purpose of enabling them to perform in a desired way (Tambo, 2012). Students’ motivation undoubtedly is the most important aspect in learning. Without motivation it is impossible to achieve the expected learning outcomes of a given subject or field of study. The core of effective teaching is dependent on motivation. Thus the primary focus of every instruction is to enhance lifelong learning; therefore, motivation should be considered as the primary tool for students’ success in learning sciences. Young people in secondary schools should be motivated both extrinsically and intrinsically so as to support them engage in science related pursuits.

Accordingly, research reports in international assessment programs like PISA, noted that students in highly developed societies are aware that science is very vital but they are not motivated towards science and science related professions. Therefore, their orientation and motivation towards science needs adequate attention. Students’ motivation towards science

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learning makes the process effective as noted by (Altuncekic & Yaman, 2004). In addition, Cava (2011) noted that students’ motivation portrays a pivotal role in science learning, therefore, targeting students’ motivation will enhance students’ achievements in science.

1.1. Background of the Study

Nowadays, adolescents are exposed to the world of technology brought about by scientific inquiry. Therefore, by the end of their formal education, they will be required to enter a society with new products and services born out of new science and technology (Staver, 2007). Hence secondary school students must be trained to operate in the scientific methods and information in order to enable them to make concrete decisions concerning their individual lives, careers, communities and the world at large. This is supported by Ryan (2009) who posited that all schools and schooling systems should adopt the role of preparing students to be able to integrate in a scientific world of work. Through learning science, students will be equipped with the right scientific competences, attitude and knowledge required to integrate in a globalized world.

Motivation will therefore serve as a push factor for students to learn science so as to integrate smoothly in the world of science and technology. As such, McDonough (1983) noted that students’ motivation is one of the core elements in shaping their accomplishment in science.

Therefore, getting better understanding of students’ orientations as well as their beliefs towards science will enhance the designing of instructional strategies, task value and self-efficiencies that will motivate students to learn.

In addition, Osborne, Simon & Collins (2003) noted that there is a great and growing acknowledgement of the relevance of scientific knowledge in advanced societies, but generally there exist little or no interest and lack of motivation in science and as such the number of youth who chose to pursue science education decreases. Thus, leading to a call for social unease and debate around the world. Generally, it has been noted that children get into school with very high levels of anxiety and motivation, this motivation varies across the different subjects. But it is observed that this motivation levels decline as they advance through school and with age.

Accordingly, Anderman & Young, 1994; Vedder-Weiss & Fortus (2011) realized that the motivation levels of learners tend to decline as they approach the adolescence stage.

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Notwithstanding, research shows that employing certain instructional practices or activities can be used to control learners’ motivation.

In spite the 1996 Finnish government’s project which focused on encouraging science education at several educational levels of the Finnish society, with the aim of raising Finnish people’s abilities in science to the international level; students have low motivation towards science studies (National report on approaches in Finnish Policy, 2007-2013). In addition, outcomes from the ROSE project indicated that students strongly agreed and acknowledged the relevance of science and technology but contrarily, it was observed that the more the country is developed, the less motivation for school science.

The perceptions students have towards science will determine their interest and motivation in science and science related activities to a greater extent. Thus Johnston (1991) noted that students see science as interesting but on the other hand a difficult subject. Meanwhile, Kaysar &

Pasquale (2008) opine that one of the crucial attribute to be considered in the 21^st Century is a firm foundation in science. Thus, Lazowski & Hulleman (2016) put forth that in order to meet this demand in science education learners’ motivation must be considered as the core element. It has been noted that parents and teachers become frustrated by students’ poor attitude about science and their lack of motivation to exert effort to learn science. Therefore, a school which is committed in transforming learners will adopt or implement all strategies and techniques to foster learning. One of the major ways to keep the motivation of students intact is to choose tasks and instructional strategies/materials that lay emphasis on direct students’ involvement with natural phenomena and adopting problem-based learning and inquiry teaching, cooperative learning where social meaning for the investigation is ambiguous. In this study therefore, motivation in science learning is guided by the relevance of task, working strategies and self- efficacy of the learners.

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1.2. Problem Statement

Science is the key driving force for the economic and technological advancement in any nation.

But students while in secondary school lack the motivation in science learning especially when at the 9^th grade level. Despite all the available resources that have been put in place to facilitate the science learning, many students at this level are less motivated in science and science related career paths. For instance, through observation and discussions, it has been realized that students don’t find project work interesting, they don’t find experiments and observation interesting, the application of science in technology interesting; they don’t find growing of plants interesting and many other science related activities. In addition, Schreiner & Sjoberg (2010) noted that students in the developed world are on the lead when it comes to international assessment like TIMSS and PISA, but they tend to score very low on interest for science and attitudes towards science. These perceptions and low interest may have an adverse effect in lifelong learning and decisions regarding science and technology among citizens later in life. It is in this light that this study seeks to find out ways to increase or boost the motivation and interest of students towards science learning.

1.3. Research Aim

This study aim is to determine how student’s motivation is associated with science learning.

Specifically, it focuses on:

- The value students place for the tasks - The working strategies and self-efficacy

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1.4. Significance of the Study

This work would serve as a guide to educators to restructure their roles as facilitators so as to enhance science learning in secondary schools. Particularly, this study would be relevant to teacher trainers, science instructors and students.

Teacher trainers would engage in identifying strategies to enhance motivation of learners and intend equipped instructors with the relevant competences and the right knowledge required to effectively implement motivational strategies.

This study will further enable science teachers to be able to construct motivated learning environments, adopt instructional strategies and tasks that will enhance motivation of science learning among students. It would also serve as an eye opening to facilitators to put up positive attitudes towards science that would foster learning.

It will in addition provide insights into students’ interest toward science and as well as their career orientation, hence policy makers would be able to match students’ learning goals with the science curriculum goals.

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2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This section presents theories that are related with this study; expectancy value (Eccles (1983) , ARCS model of John Keller’s (Keller, 1983) and self-efficacy theory of Albert Bandura (Bandura, 1986) and the an overview of the key concepts (motivation, self-efficacy or self- concept, task value and working strategies) and finally empirical review.

2.1. Theoretical Review

Expectancy-value theory (Eccles, 1983): This theory hypothesized that college students’

achievements are determined by two elements which are the subjective task value and expectancy for success. These two elements form the attributes for the consequent behaviours of students such as; persistence, achievement and the choice of task. Accordingly, individuals’

determination, choice, as well as achievement can be explained by their viewpoint about how well they will perform on the task and the degree to which they worth the task (Atkinson, 1957;

Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). From this standpoint, students desire to have a solid expectation that they will succeed in achieving the expected outcomes of learning science. If they perceive that success is beyond their ability level, they will not be motivated. Alternatively, if students possess a solid expectation of success and they do not value the tasks, they may not be motivated as well. These two key elements are discussed as follows:

Expectancy for success: Expectancies are ideals individuals have regarding their capacity to be successful on certain project they will carry out within the brief term or long term. These expectations an individual has shaped their attitude or behaviour as well as the choices they make. In this light, the degree to which students count on fulfillment in science related ventures will determine the efforts they will put in to learn science. The value/relevance they also place on science related problems will also motivate them to learn science. Therefore, unless college students have the keenness and self-assurance in their capability to prevail they won’t be able to engage in science related problems.

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In keeping with Eccles (1983), subjective task may be the motivation that permits individuals to respond to the issue of “do I need to do that activity and why”? That is the degree to which an individual would perceive a project as vital, beneficial and pleasurable (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The value, importance and usability students place on science will determine their focus towards science. Subjective task is further divided into four subcategories: achievement value, internal value as well as the efficiency value and cost.

Firstly, achievement value is concerned with the relevance of an individual’s action. Secondly, internal value involves the pleasure and interest derived by an individual during the actions.

Thirdly, efficiency worth connotes to the significance of an individual’s action and fourthly, Eccles et al., (1983) indicated that cost is concerned with the adverse outcomes perceived from the actions. Students generally have their individual learning goals as well as the science curriculum have its goals. If there are no connections between these goals, learners may find the science curriculum as not relevant, useful or interesting to them hence they see no need to engage in any science related task. Students who have the perception that science related paths are significant, valuable and relevant will probably engage in it, show persistency and be determined to achieve. In addition, the expectations for achievement and the value teachers place on science related activities will cause them to use diverse strategies in order to assist students to learn science.

The theory of Self-concept or self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986): This refers to the perception of an individual, approximately an individual’s capabilities. Someone who possess low self- assurance in an activity, will intend perform at low in the task and vice versa. Generally, Bandura (1997) noted that students’ motivational levels tend to increase with increase in ability tiers, performance level and achievement gains. Moreover, Bandura, (1997) and Schunk, (1996), opine that self-confidence ideals impact the choice of task, endeavor, tenacity, resistance, and accomplishment. It is determined that students who experience efficacious for learning will be actively involved in science tasks with the desire of working harder, persist longer in the project and be successful irrespective of the difficulty level of the assignment. As such instructors need to be conscious on the approach in constructing the self-efficacy of learners via connecting the goals of the students with the desires of getting to learn science, and the usage of multimedia teaching/studying techniques so that it will get the students fully involved in the process.

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ARCS Model of Keller: Keller (1983) placed forth the ARCS version for enhancing the motivation of students. He advised that instructors need to boost the expectations of students, their study goals, get content applicable to learners, assist learners to build their confidence on their ability to gain knowledge and their achievement and sooner or later make students' to be satisfied on their learning outcomes. In addition, he proposed strategies of improving students’

motivation using the model. This is provided in Table 1:

Table 1: Keller’s subcategories of motivation and strategies

Component Subcategories Strategies

A- B- C- D- E- F-

G- A- Attention

Perceptual arousal

Using authentic world examples that are linked to specific content. Use touch of humour to keep up with and sustain interest and overcome learner’s past experiences or provide opposite point of view

Inquiry arousal Provide learners with hands on or role-playing activities, ask learners inquiries to allow them to do brainstorming or critical thinking

Variability Use diverse methods, strategies and approaches e.g.

discussion groups, lectures, videos, collaborate learning to sustain interest

R- Relevance

Goal orientation Explain why and how the content will help learners today and, in the future,

Matching motives Regularly assess learners to get better understanding on their learning intent. Whether they learn because of academic achievement, power, or affiliation. Allow learners to choose their own instructional techniques in line with their learning styles.

Familiarity Give learners a sense of continuity by allowing them to ascertain connections between prior information and new information. Use the content that you simply present and demonstrate to learners role models in order to improve their lives

C-Confidence

Learning needs Communicate the intended learning outcomes and provide learners with evaluation and learning standards that they can establish positive expectations and thus achieve success

Opportunities for Success

Give learners opportunities to be successful by providing multiple and diverse experiences. Give learners regular and adequate feedback about their improvement and deficiencies during the process for adjustments

Personal control Give opportunity for learners to take control over their own learning process so that they can feel their success does not totally depend on external factors

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S-Satisfaction

Intrinsic Strengthening

Enhance intrinsic motivation of learning experiences so that learners can have fun and be able to continue with the learning process without expecting reward or other kind of external motivational push factors

Extrinsic Reward Praise or Rewards

Provide learners with positive feedback, rewards, and reinforcements. Be careful about the scheduling of reinforcement. It is more efficient reinforcements are provided at non-predictable intervals

Fairness Adopt and sustain standards for success. Employ consistent assessment yardsticks and let learners be aware of them.

It should be noted that this theory has a great influence in learning science. These are working strategies that will enhance students’ motivation in science. Therefore, teachers play a pivotal role in adopting an eclectic method in delivering the science content.

2.2. Conceptual Review

This portion presents an overview of the main concepts used in this work which are: motivation, working strategies, self-efficacy and science learning.

2.2.1 Concept of Motivation

Motivation is commonly characterized as the way towards arousing, sustaining and regulating students' interest and participation in the learning process. It is otherwise called a goal-oriented behaviour. That is applying rewards and stimulating the enthusiasm of students to make them act in an ideal manner. The significance of motivation in the instructional process derives from the discoveries of modern psychology that individuals learn better when they are persuaded.

Motivation has numerous elements and the most significant one is motivational orientation. As per Steward, Bachman, & Johnson (2010) motivational orientations go about as the main thrust which urges an individual to participate in any task. Motivational orientations comprise of a few traits these are; internal or intrinsic motivation, external motivation, individual relevance, self- assurance as well as assessment interest.

Internal motivation comes from forces inside the learner that impels him/her to desire to achieve a goal. According to Schiefele, (1991) it as an internal push to motivate students to have interaction in academic situations, which may be of interest to them and therefore cause them to

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partake in the process of learning. These forces propel the learner to want to acquire a preferred goal. The skills of the learner are put to check and they are keen to research even if there aren't any outside rewards to be won. Intrinsic motivation is identified to be present when learners actively seek to take part in learning activities without been rewarded with substances. For instance, Cavallo, Rozman, Blinkenstaff, & Walker (2003) confirmed that students whose intend of studying is geared towards mastering science and to gain skills are often driven by forces from within them (intrinsically motivated).

Furthermore, learners who are push by forces from within them select a job; get energized about the job and persist to accomplish it successfully regardless of whether it brings an on the spot reward. They remain highly concerned and belief in their capacity to succeed. These learners intend persist to accomplish or complete the job they have undertaken. As such these learners apply the knowledge gained in school with their experiences gotten out of school. They frequently do inquiries in order to develop their understanding, improve on their analysing skills irrespective of any external forces or assistance from instructors, and they put on a positive attitude during the teaching/learning process. Stipek, (1988) confirmed that incredibly intrinsically encouraged college students can analyze innovative ideas profitably and demonstrate clearer insight of the content.

Alternatively, extrinsic motivation is external, it stems as a result of pressures or forces outside the learner. It drives college students to interact in academic obligations for external reasons.

Extrinsically encouraged students will engage in any given task because of incentives/rewards or to keep away from punishment. It must be noted that extrinsic motivators differ among learners.

For example, promising a pupil a ride after effectively accomplishing a task may not be equal reward for another pupil to carry out the same task. Students who are extrinsically motivated tend to pay more attention on earning better scores so as to gain gifts. In view of this, Biehler &

Snowman (1990) opine that students’ intrinsic motivation can be lessen by extrinsic or external motivational factors. As a result, Bain (2004) remarked that external rewards adversely influence internal or intrinsic motivation. It is not very clear which of these two motivational techniques is foremost with reference to learning. Therefore, teachers need to try to apprehend them and used them in a complementary manner so as to influence learning.

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The next element of motivational orientation is personal relevance. Students have their distinctive goals and there exist individual learning goals in addition to curriculum goals. If what college students are required to learn in science is not relevant or crucial to them as a person, they will not be inspired to learn. As such Levitt, (2001) described importance as vital or significant to the desires of college students. In addition, Keller (1983) described importance as an extra individual understanding that is a learner’s notion of whether the subject matter or education meets their individual learning goals, non-public desires, and/or professional goal.

This is consistent with the thoughts of (Gardner, 1985; Osborne & Collins, 2001; Reiss, 2000) who say that once the interest of school science subjects is determine by learners themselves, the importance takes on a non-public sense. Thus, college students will get involve in significant learning of science only when the content has personal value and foster the achievement of their learning goals. On this note, Holbrook, Rannikmae, Yager, & De Vreese (2003), purported that learners understand science when it is applicable to them via three zones: the relevance of science in the society. This will cause learners to be extra determine to examine if the subject matter is associated with problems of the society and solving societal problems; Secondly, learners’ interest toward science; this imply learners are inspired to study and take responsibilities of their learning and lastly, determine the significance of science in developing self. That is the meaningfulness of the science content and its benefits to them.

Self-determination: According to Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, (2003). this refers to students’ potential to choose and take charge of what and the way they desire to learn. It must be mentioned that after learners are given the opening to be fully involved in relation to determining their educational projects, they are much more likely to gain more. For example, giving college students the opportunity to take control over laboratory sessions for the duration of science practice exercises will cause them to be determined in engaging in the task. In this regard, Reeve et al. (2003) affirmed that once learners know that they have a degree of influence over their studying, they are determined to succeed. In this light, Lavigne, Vallerand, & Miquelon (2007) further asserted that instructors who help to enhance leaner’s level of determination often bring about a significant effect on learners’ mastering of science as well as their interest to pursuit science profession.

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Test apprehension refers to a mental phase of the psyche in which learners exercise different periods of concern, anxiety, insecurity, and vulnerability which can occur prior to, in the course of or after a test (Olatoye & Afuwape, 2003; Hurlock, 1972. Cowden (2009) discovered that college students with excessive tension regularly express low self-belief with regard to their potential in dealing with academic situations since they belief in lacking the competencies to handle and manage thus they turn to lose sight of what they are engaged in. contrarily a moderate level of anxiety is better since it enables motivated learning as indicated by Cassady & Johnson (2002). Notwithstanding, students irrespective of their ability and degree are usually scared when it comes to assessment. They become conscious of knowing what the assessment may be made of and this builds fear in them and might significantly lessen their anxiety towards learning because of the concern of failure. Therefore, assessment needs to take specific forms in relation to the learners’ studying style in a bit to construct and encourage learners’ tension to reach any given task.

Guidelines for reinforcing motivation within the classroom

In as much as students have individual desires, different expectations, diverse learning styles and special ways wherein they understand themselves and the teachers, teachers have to become aware via observation and dialogue the kind of incentives or rewards that might motivate exceptional students and also putting it in mind that students differ intellectually, physically, socially and emotionally. Consequently, helping inexperienced learners to pick out their personal aspirations will help them reap greater and to set up practical and sound educational dreams for themselves. Learners should have a sound balance between successful and unsuccessful experiences. In view of this Schwartz, (2003) has offered a few approaches to encourage inexperienced learners. These are summarized in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Developing self-motivation (adapted from Schwartz, 2003)

Figure 1 proposed some vital applicable ways of improving and enhancing students’ motivation.

Skryabina, (2000) noted that knowledge ought to be associated with what is critical inside the learner’s existence. Parsons et al., 2001; Reid & Yang, 2000 further noted that at the same time the institution’s activities may be effective instigators. The focus on gaining knowledge forced learners to behave in particular manner so at to attain their intended learning outcomes.

Generally, it is evident that goals, needs, concerns, spurs, panic, anxiety, social tensions, acknowledgements, self-trust, curiosity, ideals, anticipations, and reinforcement do act as energizers that direct and sustain behaviour. Teachers need to be aware of the elements that affect motivation and use them wisely to arouse and maintain students’ motivation to learn.

These elements include learners’ interests; mastering environment; objectives, incentives and rewards or punishment, success and frustration.

If learners see science as having a selected cost for them, they will be disposed to study it. On the contrary if it does not relate to their personal interest, they may respond negatively to it. The learning environment includes a wide variety of stimuli that are in consistent opposition with the learner’s attention. At any given time, students will select to pay attention to those stimuli that they perceive to be most closely associated with their desires. In addition, if learners see that the targets of science studying match with their interests and needs, they will be influenced to learn.

Furthermore, learners differ with intelligence level, physical make-up, and emotional

Teacher Learner

See value of what is to be learned See success as a

realistic possibility See value of achievement in

learning Wants to master

the material See value of

what is to be learned

Generates enjoyment in learning Transmit confidence,

assurance

See value of achievement in

learning

Is self- motivated

and secured

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constitution, no one incentive, reward or punishment will inspire learners equally therefore, they should be used complementarily and fairly in order to influence motivation. Generally, motivation is a way to a conclusion. Therefore, it should be noted that everyone’s behavior can be influenced therefore motivation ought to be seen as a device to help in coaching and getting to learn science.

2.2.2 Working strategies

Strategies confer with the various ways/techniques employed by facilitators during teaching to enhance the process, therefore, motivating learners to learn science. According to Barlia, (1999) a critical educational variable that can be used to promote new mastering, overall achievement of prior learned skills, techniques and behaviours is motivation. Accordingly, Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010; Pintrich, (2003), noted that college students’ motivation might be the most important element of gaining knowledge and consequently they recommended a few instructional techniques that will enhance motivation. This is summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Proposed instructional techniques to enhance the motivation of students

Element Instructional technique

Individual importance and interest

Make use of authentic world example and societal issues to enable learners associate with and be fully involved in the process

Indicate how connected the material is with other subject and also with future careers. Facilitators should introduce a relevant and meaningful problem that enhances the motivation of students before getting into new definitions, processes, inquiries etc. This will encourage learners to learn the details of the content.

Always ensure that all given assignments are done properly and provide remediation to the needy areas. This will demonstrate your own interest in the subject and thus learners’ interest will be aroused.

In order to ensure the content will be of interest and relevant to the student, always hold a focus group discussion with other students who have recently took the course and get their view.

Choice and control

In case there exists some optional topics in the subject, facilitators should be flexible to let students choose what should be included in the content Learners should be allowed to make choices on the topic they desire to carry out a project on. This will enhance their motivation to work on the

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project themselves.

Provided there are diverse ways of controlling assignments, let learners choose the preferred format.

Impression that one can grasp the

material

The objectives of the subject should be clearly communicated to students.

Let students be encouraged to make attempts and also build their confidence in order for them to master the material.

Lessons can commence with a diagnostic assessment to check level of understanding. This will enable facilitator to create assignments that are challenging but can be accomplished. This will improve on the ability to endure in a task or activity no matter the level of difficulty

The success ability of learners should be built early so that all students can accomplish any given task.

Include “bonus” activities into the major activities so as to keep smart students fully engaged all through.

Feedback should be given at regular intervals so that learners should have an insight of their abilities and mastery levels.

Ensure that the different units of the course and assessment are in line with the learning outcomes.

Clearly and concisely point out to learners their level of achievement.

Give counsel to students on the different learning strategies in order to assist them improve on their learning.

In addition, there are other elements to consider for students’ motivation to learn. These are the individual student, instructors, available resources, and the learning environment. Students as individuals come to the learning environment with an array of qualities which include educational background, learning style, readiness to learn, socio-economic status, their expectations and individual goals and their ability to succeed in any given task. Teachers on the other hand come to the learning environment with some characteristics which either promote or inhibit students’ motivation. These attributes include their perceptions about teaching, classroom management techniques, other colleagues, fairness, supportive and their expectations from learners. All these traits can either influence learners positively or hinder their motivation to learn. Some of the traits to adopt in order to teach effectively include:

- Teachers should possess good classroom management skills so as to give students the opportunity to be fully engaged in any given task

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- Lesson plans should be purposefully programmed in order to achieve specific and realistic learning outcomes

- Multimedia teaching styles should be adopted to influence active involvement of all learners

- Diverse questioning techniques like probing and prompting should be adopted to promote students’ participation and hence test for proper understanding

- Regularly providing adequate feedback and the appropriate use of praises would build confidence in learners

Furthermore, resources are needed in the teaching of science in order to accomplish the various tasks as planned. It is noted that students from the developing world show more interest in science related issues and career paths, but the school environment and classroom setting have inadequate resources to effectively implement the science content. This prevents students from these nations to adequately meet the needs of science education and hence they end up producing science certificate students with little or no scientific skills. For instance, students in science laboratories can be seen in groups of 10 to 20 observing a teacher conducting experiments while they report what they observed without being actively involved in the process. This is often due to inadequate material resources. Meanwhile in advanced nations, there are available resources that are connected to science learning, but learners show little or no motivation in science related activities. Therefore, teachers could adopt strategies and use resources that will fully engage learners to learn science hence enhance their motivation to pursue science related careers.

The implementation of guidelines and practices which were noted to motivate students in the past no longer exist in many schools today and thus some school practices counteract effective motivation techniques adopted in the classroom settings. For instance, Togut (2007) mentioned that in high performance-oriented colleges and classrooms, students might also undergo higher nervousness, pressure, dissatisfaction, mental failure, tiredness, physical and emotional illness irrespective of the classroom motivational climate. On the other hand, in institutions and classrooms which are oriented towards mastery, learners show greater sense of wellness increased high quality and wonderful handling educational failure and a decrease in the use of escaping techniques, inclusive of self-insufficiency, escaping from seeking help and uniqueness as opined by Kaplan &Midgley, 1999, Kaplan &Maehr, 1999, Anderman, 1999 and Turner et

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al., (2002). It is mentioned that in some schools and classrooms they focus on obtaining good grades in examinations without thinking about performance desires and mastery learning of the learners. In this way students are often placed under higher anxiety, worry of failure, fatigue and teachers dominate the classrooms with authoritarian procedures and strict controlling rules.

Teaching strategies on the other hand represent the most common ways teachers act when interacting with students. Such acts can be observed among teachers no matter the subject they are teaching. Science being a practical area of study needs strategies that will actively engage learners. In relation with science learning, techniques such as laboratory exercises, project-based instruction, inquiry teaching, performance-based teaching, field work as well as cooperative learning are unique in accomplishing the outcome of the subject. Therefore, complementing these strategies will greatly enhance interest and motivation to learn among students. Students are diverse in their learning styles as well as their individual learning goals, therefore if only one strategy is often used in teaching; all the needs of the learners will not be met hence leading to lose of interest and no motivation. It should be noted that students’ motivation is not fix, it diverges from one individual to the other, one position to the next, within individuals at different intervals. Consequently, there is a complicated interaction among the attributes of students, teachers and the classroom setting which affect the degree of learning, enthusiasm and involvement. It is evident that effective learning is motivated learning thus teachers should consider the content of a subject, the impact of the instructional techniques adopted, the nature of the curriculum, learning experiences and instructional materials that will be used in course of their lesson preparation.

2.2.3 Self-Efficacy or Self-concept

This concept emanated from social learning theory. It refers to the certainty that an individual can perform a behaviour successfully and achieve the intended outcome. The beliefs of self- efficacy ascertain in what way individuals think, sense, motivate themselves and act. That is individuals’ certainty about their proficiencies to create certain degree of accomplishment which shows impact concerning the issues that influence their lives. Consequently, as indicated by (Cave, Evans, Dewey & Hartshorn, 2018) learners who possess a high level of self-confidence do depend on their capabilities when they encounter difficult situations, they see difficulties as

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opportunity rather than intimidations, they witness small adverse emotional stimulation when the task seem demanding, they conceive self-empowerment, exhibit perseverance when faced with problematic circumstances. In this light, Bandura (1977) stipulated that the higher an individual’s perception, the higher the endeavours to succeed. Therefore, a student who has a positive perception of self anticipates to accomplish a task thus will endure in any activity till the task is successful whereas a student with a low self-perception foresees failure and is more likely not to make an effort in a demanding task. Thus, a student’s strong sense of self-efficacy will consequently promote accomplishments and personal wellbeing of the student. Furthermore, the self-efficacy of students is developed via four key areas as indicated by Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997):

Mastery experience: The self-efficacy level of an individual is been raised by multiple experiences, whereas experiencing repeated failure decreases the perception level of self- efficacy. Therefore, when students pass through numerous successful experiences especially in executing science task, it builds their self-efficacy level. In conformity, Bandura (1977; 1982) noted that when a solid feeling of self-efficacy has been built because of repeated success experiences, the impact of limited failures is minimal. Alternatively, a lesser number of failures which an individual survives through constant and consistent endeavours can reinforce motivation of self and determination if the individual notes that it is possible to overcome even the most challenging situations. Hence Bandura (1977) opine that the impact of disappointments on self-confidence would partially depend on the scheduling as well as the sum of failed experiences.

Vicarious experience: According to Bandura (1977) vicarious experience is keyed to the social learning process, thus students’ self-efficacy can be built by causing them to interact with their peers or cause them to observe their peers taking successful or unsuccessful actions. It is noted that observing others carry out minacious actions without adverse effects can generate self- advancement beliefs, predict tenacity and more endeavors. Contrarily, observing individuals fail in a task can decrease the individual’s feeling of self-efficacy. Similarly, since students at the adolescent stage are more related to their peers, observing them succeed or performing minacious acts with no negative effect will create in them the ability to self-improve in order not to be left behind.

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Verbal or oral persuasion: This is concern with the oral persuasion of an individual regarding his or her capabilities or concerning the individual’s incapability to accomplish a certain task.

Persuading students verbally that they have the ability to succeed may encourage them to get involved in any learning task. Oral persuasion can either increase or decrease an individual’s feelings of self-efficacy. The verbal comments peers and teachers make to students can greatly influence their ability to succeed in performing certain tasks. For instance, during laboratory practice, project learning, inquiring learning, teachers could positively praise students verbally to let them know they can succeed in executing the tasks. Meanwhile, facilitators should note that using negative words like you cannot do it, you are very slow in conducting experiments can instill fear and discourage learners.

Physiological arousal: According to Bandura (1977), how an individual understands his or her biological arousal would influence the individual’s feelings of self-efficacy. Thus, it is evident that the efficacy expectations of an individual will be developed as he or she tries to overcome adverse stimulation than when the individual is eager and nervous. Therefore, learners should be encouraged by creating a conducive working environment that will arouse their interest and further raise their expectations in learning science. In addition, it has been realized that both learners and teachers maintain views regarding their abilities for learning and teaching science, respectively. These self-views concerning individual abilities to involve in science related activities can greatly affect achievement as well as the zeal to engage in what is needed in any science environment. These views are said to be the beliefs of self-efficacy. When students’

belief in their success they tend to accomplish no matter the level of difficulty and they perceive science activities as been relevant and significant to them, they will be motivated to learn. In this light, Dolin & Evans (2011) asserted that teachers or learners will accomplish at a higher level if they expect success from the learning and teaching situation. Thus, it is very vital for instructors and learners to be aware of how self-confidence can be built and transformed.

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2.2.4 Concept of learning

One of humanity’s vital attribute is the ability to learn. The learning process occurs throughout in the life of an individual. Consequently, the way an individual perceives, thinks, feels, and perform may change as a result of the learning experiences. Learning therefore is comparatively a lasting change in behaviour as a product of training, experience or practice. According to Logan (2001) learning can be interpreted as changes in behavior that are relatively settled as experience and training. Muhbidinsyah (2000) noted that learning can be said to be successful if there is a change in the student’s behaviour, but not all changes in behavior are related to learning, because changes in behavior as a result of learning have typical characteristics of embodiment. Learning involves actions and is guided by goals. Students don’t come into the science classroom as empty vessels; they tend to learn new knowledge based on the pre-existing knowledge of what science is all about. However, the teacher is pivotal in influencing learning based on the pre-existing knowledge in science. Muhammad (2004) opine that learning can also be a change in behaviour as a consequence of interaction with the environment therefore learning means interacting with the environment intentionally or unintentionally. If there is no change in the individual’s behaviour then learning has not taken place.

The outcome of any teaching and learning in science is to produce students who can demonstrate, construct, create, experiment, develop, produce, explain and illustrate.

Consequently, learners should acquire information, competences, values and attitudes that are beneficial to them and the society at large. Science is a very vital field of study; thus, the learning of science must produce outcomes that are developmental. Therefore, the learning process should offer a variety of balanced experiences through which learners can build the required knowledge, understanding, competences, processes, values and attitudes that are rooted in life. Moreover, for students to effectively learn science, teachers should be able to identify the differences and similarities that exist among learners. This will intend enable them to use the right strategies, materials and learning experiences. Learners are diverse in their learning styles, abilities, intelligence, socio-economic status, individual goals, socio-cultural background and their expectations. They may also be similar in their age. Paying attention to these differences and similarities among learners will help teachers to adopt strategies that will meet their needs as

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individuals and as a group. Motivation is a prime factor in enhancing deep learning therefore motivation can transform an individual’s energy into real activity to reach the required outcome.

Moreover, taking into consideration that the learning of science does not only involve a subject but learning a group of interrelated disciplines, the learner has to be greatly involved in the process. Motivation will therefore fuel the learning process. Lack of motivation may cause learners not to get involved in the process at all and those who have started may not be able to sustain the process once they experience difficulties.

2.3. Empirical Review

This section examines other findings of studies related to students’ motivation with science learning.

2.3.1. Motivation and science learning

Lee & Brophy (1996) define learners’ motivation as the vigorous process of involving students in science task to enable them to achieve a better insight of science. The conceptual construction of students’ understanding of science is closely linked to their motivation. Therefore, Huang &

Tuan 2001; Tuan & Chin 1999; 2000; Wu & Tuan, 2000; did exploration of eighth and nine grade students’ motivation levels in learning science. They confirmed the motivational domains and concluded that the motivation of students towards learning science was closely associated with their daily lives. It was revealed that the learning goals of students in science were both external or extrinsic and internal or intrinsic. The extrinsic goals included: competition and getting an award from the teachers while the intrinsic goals included satisfying their own curiosity.

In the same light, Jen & Yong (2013) explored the motivation of students towards their accomplishment in blended science. They used 324-year II students in secondary schools as participants of the study. The findings from the investigation showed that learners’ levels of external motivation and measurement anxiety in combine science were moderate. Further demonstrations indicated high ability students showed a significant effect in their motivational directions towards learning combined science than low ability students. In addition, there were

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significant positive associations of students’ motivational directions with their accomplishment in science as indicated via correlation analysis.

Furthermore, Carvas (2011) carried out a study to determine the elements affecting Turkish primary students’ motivation towards science. The sample constituted 376 students from five different schools. Data were collected using questionnaires with items directed towards students’

motivation in learning science. Additional, data were collected in line with students’ attitudes towards science as well as their achievement scores. Findings indicated a significant level of students’ motivation regarding their attitude in science as well as their achievements. Therefore, instructors should adopt strategies that will enhance students’ motivation and attitudes towards science.

2.3.2. Working strategies and science learning

Lawrenz, Wood, Kirchhoff, Kim & Eisentkraft, 2009; Roth & Tobin 2002; Tobin, Roth &

Zimmerman,2001; indicated that some researchers asserted that in an education setting, teaching and learning strategies are relevant to influence motivation in science learning. In addition, Kaly

& Ali (2004) noted that instructors can impact students’ attitudes towards science via the curriculum and the experiences of learning. Students in a science classroom are from diverse cultural and social backgrounds. In this light, Morrison & Lederman (2003) highlighted that the value of determining students’ existing knowledge should not be left out. It has been realized that strategies like cooperative learning, problem-based learning, inquiry teaching, experimentation and field work greatly influence students’ motivation to learn science. All these approaches would enhance a student-centered approach to learning hence enabling students to fully participate in the practice. In the same view, Hanze & Berger, 2007; Stamovlasis, Dimos

&Tsaparlis, 2006; Schneider, Krajcik, Marx &Soloway, 2002; established that student-centered, cooperative learning approaches and inquiry-based teaching are vital in enhancing students’

motivation. In addition, Walshaw, (2012) supported that using projects and experiments during inquiry-based assist in enhancing the links between students and real-world experiences, hence motivating students to fully involve in science education.

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In the same light, Brophy (1998) integrated several motivational behaviours which include:

internal motivation, reinforcement, goals, needs, the theory of expectancy to build motivational guides and techniques for use in the classroom by teachers. In this motivational laws, he established that motivational learning environment should be constructed by teachers; adopt instructional techniques that will support students’ confidence, link students’ internal motivation, use incentives to boost students’ motivation extrinsically; teachers should adapt the desires of individual learners with the content as well as create a link between the individual needs and the science curriculum. In order to create motivated learning environments, Brophy proposed that teachers need to provide learning opportunities for leaners to learn from each other thereby participating cooperatively to enable them accomplish both their individual and group learning goals. Students should be instructed to gain an insight, appreciate and utilize the content scientific knowledge and as well endeavour to attend the expectancy value of students’

motivation. Generally, these techniques revealed that instructors need to generate learning communities that will handle students’ confidence, pay keen attention to both internal and external motivation levels and as well reinforcements in order to stimulate students’ interest to learn and also meet their goals.

When teachers handle motivational strategies, they could assist students to reach their learning goals (Brophy, 1998; Kelly, 1983; Pintrinch & Schunk 2002). Therefore, the motivational techniques will not only address the affective domain of learners but would also lay emphasis on how to assist students get meaningful learning. It is well established that learners get into science classrooms with prior knowledge and experiences; therefore, teachers should adapt students’

previous learning experiences correctly in order to teach new information. When learning and teaching goals are similar, then new learning will take place. Thus Glaserfeld (1998) stipulated that when teachers generate a situation which provides learners with successful experience in new theoretical style and satisfaction, students can be motivated intellectually.

Consequently, learning strategies can be employed to motivate students’ learning of science.

These strategies can be grouped as cognitive and metacognitive strategies as indicated by Pintrichet al., (1993). Weinstein & Mayer (1996) noted that cognitive learning strategies include: rehearsal, elaboration (associating new learning with old knowledge), organization (that is grouping the subject hierarchically) and critical thinking which is concerned with shifting prior

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knowledge to new learning situations. Other findings also reported the link between intellectual strategies and science learning. For instance, the force of this connection will show changes depending on which intellectual technique that was used. Techniques like expansion, grouping, creative and inquiry thinking require in-depth means to process information whereas other techniques such as memorisation involve superficial information processing (Pintrich et al., 1993; Sedaghat, Abedin, Hejazi & Hassanabadi, 2011; Yumusak, 2006;). Hence Pintrich et al., 1993; Sedaghat et al., 2011; identified that learners who used deep information processing strategies demonstrate better academic achievement as equated to learners who used shallow information processing techniques.

According to Livingston, 2003; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994; and Flavell, 1999; metacognition is the process of thinking in what way to imagine in the course of solving a problem or learning situation. Metacognitive strategies are related with cognitive regulation as indicated by Printrich (1999). Akyol (2009) further indicated a positive association exists between metacognitive strategies and science learning. He noted that when learners are intellectually involved in the process of learning, they tend to use diverse strategies in order to accomplish the task. Moreover, students’ task worth and self-concept are significantly connected to their intellectual involvement. As a result, students who possess self-confidence tend to see science activities as vital, relevant and interesting thus will demonstrate more determination, put in extra effort and adopt different intellectual and metacognitive techniques so as to understand associated contents.

2.3.3. Self-efficacy and science learning

Interesting findings have been yielded from studies that specifically investigated students’ ability in line with motivation. In an in-depth study carried out by Talib, Wong, Azhar & Abdullah (2009) on the motivation of students with outstanding academic achievement indicated that great achievement in science does not solely depend on teaching approaches but also on other elements such as students’ competence. In addition, Feldhusen & Hoover (1986) noted that self- confidence and motivation are very vital elements for enhancing the academic achievement of high ability learners. Additional findings as indicated by Debacker & Nelson (2000) reported that the goals of learners with high ability is to get higher scores than that of low ability learners, and thus increase in their value for science and perceive ability. Moreover, Adams (1996) also noted that such students possess more positive attitude towards science in terms of their interest in

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science career path. This is in accordance with the theory of self-efficacy which posited that students with high capability accomplish more in science, show persistence and as well work harder in accomplishing difficult tasks than learners with low ability.

Accordingly, (Busato, Prins, Elshout & Hamaker, 2000) opine that motivational accomplishment and cognitive competence were significantly related to academic gains. Kozochkina, 2009; Lau

& Chan, 2001 also noted some other reasons that are responsible for the academic gains of learners with high ability which include: their high level of motivation to further studies, high cognitive capability, oral ability, attachment of failure to constant elements such as attitude, self confidence in academics, achievement value, memorisation, time and energy management.

Furthermore, a study was conducted by Hasan, Bircan & Sungur (2016) with purpose to investigate the influence of self-confidence, the value of the task and intellectual involvement on science achievement among seventh grade students. Data were collected from 861 seventh grade students using background survey attributes, motivation, intellectual engagement scale and science achievement test as instruments. The results showed that task value and self-concept significantly contributed to learners’ predictions on science achievement and notably self- confidence demonstrated to be prime predictor in the achievement of science.

Moreover, the results from meta-analysis carried out by (Multon, Brown & Lent, 1991) indicated that there exist a positive significant association of self-confidence with students’ achievement.

Standardized test was used to assess achievement levels as well as test associated with the classroom and skills in basic tasks. Precisely, the findings showed a 14% variance of relation between students’ academic achievement and self-efficacy. Corresponding with this results, it has been revealed by other studies that learners’ self-concept levels are relevantly linked with accomplishment in science. This is also in line with the findings of Chen & Pajares (2010) which showed that there exist a direct positive association of self-efficacy with achievement in science.

Comparably, Yerdelen (2013) found self-efficacy to be the most solid element in science learning. Generally, this theoretical, conceptual and empirical framework laid a foundation for this study.